SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE 
UNITED   STATES 


SCHOOL  HISTORY  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES  • 


BY 


HENRY  WILLIAM    ELSON 

AUTHOR   OF    "HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES,"    "SIDE 
LIGHTS    ON   AMERICAN    HISTORY,"    ETC.,   ETC. 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON  :   MACMILLAN  &  CO.,   LTD. 
1906 

*All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,   1906, 
BY   THE  MACMILLAN    COMPANY, 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  May,  1906. 


Nortoooti 

J.  8.  Gushing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

PROBABLY  in  no  other  civilized  land  are  the  intelligent 
classes  so  unfamiliar  with  the  history  of  their  country  as 
in  the  United  States.  Why  are  we  not  a  nation  of  history 
readers?  The  answer  lies  partially,  no  doubt,  in  the  fact 
that  our  school  histories  too  often  have  been  written  with 
such  mathematical  precision  as  to  render  them  dry  and 
insipid.  Too  often  they  repel  rather  than  attract,  and  the 
pupil  learns  to  dislike  the  study  of  history.  The  defect 
is  a  difficult  one  to  overcome,  owing  to  the  necessity  of 
condensing  and  of  leaving  out  so  many  interesting  inci 
dents.  The  fault  has  in  part  been  corrected,  as  attested 
by  various  excellent  school  histories  now  in  use,  and  my 
belief  that.it  could  be  corrected  in  a  greater  degree  has 
led  to  the  writing  of  the  present  volume.  From  beginning 
to  end  I  have  used  the  greatest  care  to  make  the  book 
interesting  as  well  as  instructive  to  the  pupil.  My  object 
has  been  twofold :  first,  to  tell  the  great  story  of  our  coun 
try,  with  all  its  leading  facts  and  their  meaning;  and, 
second,  to  lead  the  pupil  to  love  history. 

In  following  this  aim  I  have  found  no  occasion  to  insert 
matters  of  mere  tradition  or  anecdotes  that  only  amuse 
the  reader.  The  authentic  story  itself  of  our  great  coun 
try  is  one  of  absorbing  interest,  and  to  make  it  repelling 
to  the  pupil  by  assuming  a  traditional  text-book  style  is 
to  do  an  injury  to  American  citizenship  of  the  future.  To 

V 

459669 


vi  PREFACE 

give  the  narrative  accurately  and  naturally  is  the  first  duty 
of  the  writer  of  the  school  history. 

We  may  drop  algebra  and  geology  and  many  other 
things  when  we  leave  school,  but  no  one  can  afford  to 
drop  history.  The  importance,  therefore,  of  beginning 
right  in  the  study  and  teaching  of  history  is  obvious. 

Like  all  other  studies  in  the  schools,  history  requires 
the  inspiration  of  a  skillful  teacher.  The  teacher  should 
enlarge  upon  matters  that  the  writer  has  been  obliged  to 
condense,  and  thus  awaken  an  interest  that  the  text  alone 
could  not  do.  He  should  see  that  each  pupil  does  some 
collateral  reading.  The  references  given  here  and  there 
in  this  volume  are  to  standard  books ;  but  many  school 
libraries  will  contain  other  books  equally  suitable  for  the 
purpose  of  outside  reading.  The  object  of  collateral  read 
ing,  it  is  almost  needless  to  say,  is  not  only  further  to 
elucidate  the  subject  in  hand,  but  also  to  lead  the  pupils 
into  the  larger  field  of  historical  literature,  with  the  hope 
that  they  may  become  lifelong  students  of  the  subject. 

In  this  volume  the  usual  "  helps,"  questions  and  topics 
for  discussion,  have  been  omitted,  on  the  supposition  that 
an  intelligent  teacher  can  prepare  these  better  than  the 
writer  and  that  he  prefers  to  do  it. 

No  pains  have  been  spared  to  make  this  book  historic 
ally  accurate.  It  has  been  prepared  in  accordance  with 
the  recognized  authorities,  including  the  most  recent  re 
searches  of  modern  scholarship.  But  owing  to  the  great 
number  of  subjects  to  be  treated,  absolute  accuracy  is 
scarcely  possible,  and  the  pointing  out  of  any  errors  by 
the  reader  will  be  deemed  a  kindness. 

In  the  treatment  of  the  subjects,  I  have  in  the  main 
followed  the  order  of  my  larger  "History  of  the  United 
States,"  published  in  1904,  and  some  of  the  notes  at  the 


PREFACE  vii 

ends  of  the  chapters  are  taken  from  that  work.  But  it 
must  not  be  inferred  that  this  work  is  merely  a  condensa 
tion  of  that  one.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  a  new  work, 
intended  for  the  upper  grades  of  the  grammar  schools  and 
for  the  lower  grades  of  the  high  schools. 

HENRY   WILLIAM   ELSON. 
OHIO  UNIVERSITY, 
ATHENS,  OHIO, 
January,  1906. 


NOTE   TO   THE   TEACHER 

No  thoughtful  teacher  will  require  the  pupils  to  remember 
all  the  dates  and  facts  found  on  the  pages  of  the  text-book  in 
history.  The  author  must  sift  his  multitudes  of  facts  in  writing 
a  history,  and  the  reader  must  sift  again,  as,  even  in  a  condensed 
history,  many  things  are  recorded  in  addition  to  that  which  is 
salient  and  vital.  It  is  better  to  drill  a  class  thoroughly  on 
some  important  character  or  event  than  to  give  equal  study  to 
every  item  in  a  chapter.  It  is  better,  for  example,  to  study  the 
character  of  Columbus  with  care,  though  his  contemporary 
navigators  can  be  noticed  but  lightly,  than  to  give  equal  notice 
to  all  at  the  risk  of  having  them  hopelessly  mixed  in  the  minds 
of  the  pupils  soon  after  leaving  the  subject.  In  studying  the 
founding  of  the  colonies,  it  is  well  to  choose  out  a  few  salient 
features  and  to  drill  the  class  on  these  till  they  are  fixed  in  the 
minds  of  the  dullest  pupils. 

The  same  is  true  of  dates.  Nothing  in  teaching  history  is 
more  unwise  than  to  require  the  pupils  to  remember  all  the 
dates  given  in  the  text.  But  some  dates  must  be  remembered. 
They  are  to  the  student  of  history  what  the  milestone  is  to  the 
traveler.  The  dates  printed  in  black  type  in  the  Chronological 
Table,  beginning  on  page  xxi,  will  aid  in  deciding  what  should 
be  remembered.  In  the  early  history  of  Virginia,  for  example, 
the  two  dates  that  should  be  emphasized  are  1607  and  1619, 
with  the  meaning  of  each. 

Again,  in  keeping  the  general  order  of  events  in  mind,  it 
often  aids  the  memory  to  group  and  compare.  A  few  examples 
follow :  Cortez  conquers  Mexico  at  the  same  time  that  Magellan 
sails  round  the  world,  and  if  the  two  events  are  fixed  together 


NOTE   TO   THE   TEACHER 


in  the  mind,  but  one  date  need  be  remembered.  The  founding 
of  Jamestown,  the  founding  of  Quebec,  and  the  discovery  of  the 
Hudson  River  occurred  in  three  successive  years.  George 
Washington  was  born  the  year  before  the  founding  of  Georgia 
and  a  hundred  years  before  the  Nullification  of  South  Carolina. 
King  Philip's  War  and  Bacon's  Rebellion  were  simultaneous,  — 
exactly  a  hundred  years  after  the  voyage  of  Frobisher  and  a 
hundred  years  before  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was 
passed.  William  Penn  founded  Philadelphia  while  La  Salle 
was  floating  down  the  Mississippi.  Tennessee  and  Utah  were 
admitted  into  the  Union  a  hundred  years  apart.  Abraham 
Lincoln  was  killed  a  hundred  years  after  the  Stamp  Act  was 
passed,  and  so  on.  The  teacher  will  find  such  recreation 
diverting  to  a  class  as  well  as  helpful. 

At  all  events,  the  teacher  should  see  that  the  pupils  under 
stand  the  meaning  and  continuity  of  history,  the  underlying 
caus'es  and  results  of  great  movements  of  the  past  and  their 
influence  in  shaping  the  conditions  of  the  present.  In  showing 
the  part  that  our  great  nation  is  playing  in  the  development  of 
modern  civilization,  he  should  impress  upon  the  pupils  the  vital 
fact  that  each  one  is  a  very  responsible  factor  in  the  great 
body  politic. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

AMERICAN  CHRONOLOGY xxi 

I.  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION i 

II.  THE  INDIAN .24 

III.  COLONIZATION;  THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES  .        .  .      35 

IV.  COLONIZATION;  NEW  ENGLAND  .        .        .  \     .  .      67 
V.  NEW  ENGLAND  AFFAIRS      .        .        ...  .82 

VI.  THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES       .        .        .        .      '.  .91 

VII.  STRUGGLE  FOR  A  CONTINENT      .        .        .        .  .     108 

VIII.  COLONIAL  LIFE .127 

IX.  THE  REVOLUTION -153 

X.  THE  REVOLUTION  {Continued}    .     ._      .     ._  .     177 

XI.  THE  CONSTITUTION  AND  SELF-GOVERNMENT       .  .     204 

XII.  TWELVE  YEARS  OF  FEDERAL  SUPREMACY  .        .  .212 

XIII.  JEFFERSON  AND  THE  DEMOCRACY        .        .  .     232 

XIV.  THE  WAR  OF  1812 .245 

XV.  OPENING  OF  A  NEW  ERA    .        .        .        .        .  .     260 

XVI.  THE  REIGN  OF  JACKSON,  1829-1837    .        .        .  .     275 
XVII.  RISE  OF  THE  SLAVERY  QUESTION        .        .        .  .286 
XVIII.  COMPROMISE    MEASURES    OF    1850;     THE    KANSAS- 
NEBRASKA  BILL ,     301 

XIX.  DRIFTING  TOWARD  WAR      .        .                 .        .  .     318 

•XX.  THE  CIVIL  WAR  TO  GETTYSBURG       .                 .  -337 


xii  CONTENTS 


PAGE 


XXI.     THE  CIVIL  WAR  (Continued}      .                 ...  368 
XXII.     RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  UNION         .        .        .        .390 

XXIII.  RECUPERATING  YEARS 399 

XXIV.  INDUSTRIAL  PROGRESS 410 

XXV.    WAR  AND  EXPANSION 426 

XXVI.     DAWN  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY 444 

APPENDIX  : 

Constitution  of  the  United  States 453 

Table  of  the  States 469 

Table  of  the  Territories          .......  470 

Table  of  the  Presidents          .         .         .         .         .         .         .  471 

Table  of  the  Cities  exceeding  25,000  Inhabitants  .         .         .  472 

INDEX 475 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Congress  voting  Independence Frontispiece 

PAGE 

The  Fleet  of  Columbus         ........  7 

The  Landing  of  Columbus   ........  8 

Americus  Vespucius     . 12 

Magellan 15 

Pueblos  of  New  Mexico 18 

Discovery  of  the  Mississippi  River       ......  20 

Dakota  Bow  and  Quiver,  with  Bow-sack       .....  24 

Indian  Bows         ..........  24 

Tomahawk  and  Stone-headed  Club       ......  25 

Calumets,  Indian  Peace-pipes 26 

An  Indian  Headdress 27 

Snow  Shoes  made  by  Algonquin  Indians 28 

Scalping  Knife  and  Tomahawk 29 

Home  Life  of  the  Indians -3° 

A  Typical  Indian  Face 32 

St.  Augustine       ..........  37 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh 38 

Return  of  Governor  White  to  Roanoke  Island      .         .         .         .40 

Ruins  of  Jamestown     .........  42 

Captain  John  Smith 43 

Lord  Delaware's  Ships  meeting  the  Colonists        .         .         .         -45 

The  Quarrel  between  Berkeley  and  Bacon 50 

Lord  Baltimore 52 

Prospect  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina 58 

James  Oglethorpe 61 

A  View  of  Savannah  in  1734        .......  62 

The  Mayflower    .         .         .        '.        '.  .         .         .68 

The  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims       ".        .        ,.   •',.;',     ...  69 


XIV 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Plymouth  Rock  as  it  now  Appears 
Edward  Winslow 
John  Winthrop    . 

Roger  Williams    .  -75 

A  Battle  with  Indians  .  84 
Edmund  Andros 

The  Half  Moon  in  the  Hudson  River  .  92 

Peter  Stuyvesant  •       94 

New  Amsterdam  .         .  9° 

A  New  Jersey  Farmhouse     .  •       99 

William  Penn       .  IO2 

Washington  returning  from  Fort  Le  Boeuf  .                                           114 

General  Braddock         .  U7 

The  Fall  of  Braddock  .  •     II8 

Montcalm     .  .120 

Wolfe           -  •     I22 

Mrs.  Washington  persuades  George  not  to  go  to  Sea    .                   .126 

A  Colonial  Child— Robert  Gibbs  •     128 

A  Pumpkin  Hood,  1800        .  I29 

The  Good  Girl  and  her  Wheel     .  13° 

Wool  Spinning     .         .  •     !33 

An  Old  Tavern    .  •     *34 

Illustrations  from  "  Plain  Things  for  Little  Folks"                                 135 

Betty  Lamps         .  :37 

A  Hint-lock  Musket     .  !38 

A  Spinning  Wheel        .  •     T38 

A  Foot  Stove       .         .  •     J39 

A  Flax-brake        .  .140 

An  Old  Schoolhouse    .  •                                          :4r 

Page  from  tk  The  School  of  Manners  "  .  •     J42 
Conestoga  Wagon        .                            ......     144 

Advertisement  of  Express  Fast  Line     .  •                        J45 

A  Colonial  Child  —  Jane  Bonner           .  •     147 

Stamp  Act  Stamps       .  •     J55 

Samuel  Adams     .......  T57 

Faneuil  Hall         ...                   .  .158 

The  Minute  Man  at  Concord        .  .161 
Old  State  House,  Philadelphia      .......     163 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 


PAGE 


The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill    .  .165 

The  Washington  Elm,  Cambridge        .    •     .         .         .         .         .     166 
Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia  .         .         .         •  -,     •         .167 

The  Liberty  Bell  . .168 

Facsimile  of  a  Portion  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  .         .169 
General  Burgoyne         .         ...         .         .         .         .         .178 

John  Stark  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .180 

The  Surrender  of  Burgoyne  •  .         .         .         .         .         .181 

Sir  William  Howe        .         : -      .     183 

Washington's  Headquarters  at  Valley  Forge          .  .         .184 

Washington  at  Valley  Forge         .         .         .         .         ...         .185 

Benjamin  Franklin 187 

John  Paul  Jones  .:......     ajjjt.        .     191 

Battle  between  the  Serafa's  and  Bon  Homme  Richard  .     «:.*         .-    192 
Major  Andre        .         .         .         ....         .  .     193 

General  Greene    .         .         .         .         .         ...         .         .     196 

Lafayette -197 

The  Surrender  of  Corn wallis      .  . 198 

Lord  Corn  wallis  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .199 

First  Fire  Engine  used  in  Brooklyn,  1785     .         .         .         .         .     208 

The  First  Cotton  Gin  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .213 

George  Washington     .     -    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .215 

Federal  Hall,  New  York       .....  ...     216 

John  Adams       • .         . 225 

Mount  Vernon .         .         .         .     230 

Thomas  Jefferson 234 

Alexander  Hamilton     .         .         .         .         .  .         .         .     237 

Robert  P'ulton      .     •    .         .         . 238 

The  Clermont  on  the  Hudson      .         .         .  ^      .         .         .         .     239 

Monticello  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         „         ..        .     242 

James  Madison     .         .         .         .•         .         .         .         .         .         .     246 

General  Dearborn         .'.-..         .         .         .         .         .     247 

Battle  between  the  Guerriere  and  the  Constitution       .         .         .     249 

Isaac  Hull    .         . 250 

James  Lawrence  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .251 

Oliver  Hazard  Perry 252 

The  Battle  of  New  Orleans  .  256 

James  Monroe      .         .         .         ...         .         .         .         .     261 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Emigrant  Wagons 

Lafayette's  Visit  to  Boston  . 

John  Quincy  Adams     . 

On  the  Erie  Canal,  1825 

An  Early  Railroad  Train      .  ^72 

Andrew  Jackson  .  ^7 

John  C.  Calhoun 

/—i  •  •  •       2oO 

Henry  Clay  ... 

Martin  Van  Buren 

William  Henry  Harrison 

John  Tyler  . 

James  K.  Polk     . 

General  Winfield  Scott         .  295 

Zachary  Taylor    . 

Daniel  Webster    . 

Millard  Fillmore  .  '     3°^ 

Franklin  Pierce    . 

James  Buchanan 

John  C.  Fremont 

John  Brown 

Abraham  Lincoln 

Jefferson  Davis     . 

Bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter 

Battle  between  the  Monitor  and  Merrimac  . 

General  McClellan       .  •     35' 

General  Robert  E.  Lee 

Scene  at  Battle  of  Gettysburg 

General  Grant      .  .... 

General  Sheridan 

Farragut  in  Mobile  Bay 

General  Sherman 

United  States  Capitol  . 

Andrew  Johnson 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes    . 

Samuel  J.Tilden 

James  A.  Garfield 

James  G.  Elaine  . 

Chester  A.  Arthur        .........     4*7 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

PAGE 

Grover  Cleveland          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .419 

Benjamin  Harrison .421 

Harbor  of  Honolulu 426 

Rice  Fields  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands 427 

William  McKinley 430 

A  Street  in  San  Juan,  Cuba  .         .         .         .         .         .         -431 

Admiral  George  Dewey 432 

San  Juan  Blockhouse,  showing  Marks  of  Shot      ....     433 
The  Oregon  in  Chase  of  the  Cristobal  Colon  during  the  Battle  of 

Santiago        ..........     435 

Philippine  Natives  and  Cattle 436 

Theodore  Roosevelt     .........     439 

Panama  Canal  in  Construction 441 

Battleship  Kentiicky 447 

Mining  in  the  West 448 

Slavic  Immigrants 449. 

Modern  Machinery  in  the  Corn  Belt 450 


MAPS 

FULL-PAGE    MAPS 

PAGE 

Great  Voyages     ...                  .               -  ....  13 

Early  Distribution  of  Indian  Tribes  (colored)      .         .,.      Facing  26 

Indian  Reservations  (colored) "  32 

New  England  Colonies  just  before  the  French  and  Indian  War 

(colored)       ....                           .                Facing  no 
Middle  Colonies  just  before  the  French  and  Indian  War  (colored) 

Facing  114 
Southern    Colonies    just    before    the    French    and    Indian   War 

(colored) Facing  118 

Before  and  after  the  French  and  Indian  War  (colored)             "  122 

Scene  of  War  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States  (colored)     "  178 

Scene  of  War  in  the  South  (colored)  ...                     "  196 

The  United  States  at  the  Close  of  the  Revolution  (colored)     "  200 
The  United  States  in  1830  (colored)    ....            "272 

Relief  Map  of  the  United  States "411 

Territorial  Growth  of  the  United  States  (colored)         .  Following  428 

MAPS    IN   THE   TEXT 

Bunker  Hill  and  Boston        .         .         .         .         .         ...         .164 

Siege  of  Charleston 1 7° 

Long  Island          .         .         ,         .         .         .         .  •         •     I7l 

New  Jersey  and  Trenton      .         -.         .  ••-      .         .         •         •  173 

Champlain  and  Saratoga       .         .         .         .         .         •         •         •     T79 
Valley  Forge,  Philadelphia,  and  Brandywine         «"        .         .         .182 

Siege  of  Yorktown        .         .         . 200 

The  Lake  Region         .         . 248 

Washington  and  Vicinity     .         ."'...       .         .         •         •  254 

Battle  of  New  Orleans  255 


xx  MAPS 


The  Erie  Canal .270 

The  Mexican  Campaign        .         .  •     296 

After  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill    .  •     312 

Election  Chart,  1860 •     328 

The  United  States  in  1861    .  •     345 

Capture  of  New  Orleans 347 

Scene  of  War  in  Virginia     .  ...  -35° 

Vicksburg  and  Vicinity         ....  ...     360 

Battlefield  of  Gettysburg      .  .  .     362 

Chattanooga  and  Atlanta     .  375 

Sherman's  March                             .                            •                            .380 
Center  of  Population 446 


AMERICAN   CHRONOLOGY  xxv 

1830.     Fifth  census.    Population  12,866,020. 

1832.  Nov.  19.     Nullification  by  South  Carolina.     Jackson  vetoes  bank 

charter.     Black  Hawk  War. 

1833.  Jackson  removes  bank  deposits.     Compromise  tariff  adopted. 

1836.  April  21.     Battle  of  San  Jacinto. 
Wilkes's  Antarctic  expedition. 

1837.  Patent  of  the  telegraph  by  Morse. 
Great  panic. 

1840.  Population  17,069,453. 

1841.  March  4.     Howe  invents  the  sewing  machine. 

1844.  First  telegraph  line  in  America,  between  Baltimore  and  Washington. 

1845.  Death  of  Andrew  Jackson. 

1846.  Beginning  of  the  Mexican  War.     Fight  of  Palo  Alto. 
Walker  tariff  enacted.     Wilmot  Proviso  introduced  in  Congress. 

1847.  Feb.  23.     Battle  of  Buena  Vista. 

March  29.     Capture  of  Vera  Cruz  by  General  Scott. 

Conquest  of  California. 

September.     Fall  of  the  City  of  Mexico. 

1848.  February.    Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo. 
Discovery  of  gold  in  California. 

1850.     Death  of  Calhoun. 

July  9.     Death  of  President  Taylor. 

Clay  Compromise  enacted. 

Census  shows  population  of  23,191,876. 
1852.     Death  of  Clay  and  Webster. 
1854.    May.    Kansas-Nebraska  bill  enacted. 

Commercial  treaty  with  Japan. 

1857.  March  6.     Dred  Scott  decision. 

1858.  First  Atlantic  cable  laid. 
Lincoln-Douglas  debates. 

Sept.  1 8.     Mountain  Meadow  Massacre,  Utah. 

1859.  John  Brown's  raid  on  Harper's  Ferry. 

1 860.  Population  3 1 ,443,32 1 . 

THE   CIVIL  WAR   AND   OUR   OWN   TIMES 

1860.  Dec.  20.     Secession  of  South  Carolina. 

1861.  Secession  of  Mississippi  on  Jan.  9;   of  Florida,  Jan.  IO;   of  Alabama, 

Jan.  n;  of  Georgia,  Jan.  19;  of  Louisiana,  Jan.  26;  of  Texas, 
Feb.  i;  of  Virginia,  April  17;  of  Arkansas,  May  6;  of  North 
Carolina,  May  20;  of  Tennessee,  June  8. 


xxvi  AMERICAN   CHRONOLOGY 

1861.  Feb.  4.     Confederate  government  organized. 
April  14.    Fall  of  Fort  Sumter. 

July  21.     Battle  of  Bull  Run. 

Nov.  8.     Capture  of  Mason  and  Slidell. 

1862.  Feb.  16.     Surrender  of  Fort  Donelson. 

March  9.     Duel  between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac. 

April  6-7.     Battle  of  Shiloh. 

April  1 6.    Slavery  abolished  in  District  of  Columbia. 

April  25.     Farragut  captures  New  Orleans. 

July  i.     Battle  of  Malvern  Hill;   last  of  the  seven  days'  battle  before 

Richmond. 

Aug.  30.     Second  battle  of  Bull  Run. 
Sept.  17.     Battle  of  Antietam. 
Dec.  13.     Battle  of  Fredericksburg. 

1863.  Jan.  i.    Lincoln  issues  Emancipation  Proclamation. 
Jan.  2.     Battle  of  Murfreesboro. 

May  2.     Battle  of  Chancellorsville. 
July  1-3.     Battle  of  Gettysburg. 
July  4.     Surrender  of  Vicksburg. 
Sept.  19-20.     Battle  of  Chickamauga. 
Nov.  19.     Lincoln's  address  at  Gettysburg. 
Nov.  24-25.     Battle  of  Chattanooga. 

1864.  May  6.     Battle  of  the- Wilderness. 
May  ii.     Battle  of  Spottsylvania. 

June  19.     The  Kearsarge  sinks  the  Alabama. 

Aug.  5.     Battle  of  Mobile  Bay. 

Sept.  2.     Sherman  captures  Atlanta. 

Oct.  19.     Battle  of  Cedar  Creek. 

Nov.  15.     Sherman  begins  his  march  to  the  sea. 

Dec.  15-16.     Battle  of  Nashville. 

1865.  April  i.     Battle  of  Five  Forks. 
April  3.     Evacuation  of  Richmond. 

April  9.     Surrender  of  Lee  at  Appomattox. 

April  14.     Assassination  of  Lincoln;   Andrew  Johnson  President. 

April  26.     Surrender  of  Johnston's  army. 

Dec.  1 8.     Thirteenth  Amendment  ratified. 

1866.  July  27.     Second  Atlantic  cable  completed. 

1867.  May  2.     Reconstruction  bill  passed  over  veto. 
Purchase  of  Alaska. 

1868.  Feb.  24.     President  Johnson  impeached  by  the  House. 
Trial  in  the  Senate  fails. 


AMERICAN   CHRONOLOGY  xxvii 

1868.  July  21.     Fourteenth  Amendment  adopted. 

1869.  May  10.    Pacific  Railroad  completed. 

1870.  Population  38,558,371. 

March  30.     Fifteenth  Amendment  ratified. 

1871.  November.     Great  fire  in  Chicago. 
1873.     February.     Congress  demonetizes  silver. 

Financial  panic. 

1876.  Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadelphia. 
Invention  of  the  telephone. 

Caster's  army  destroyed  by  the  Indians. 

1877.  Great  railroad  strike. 

1878.  Electric  light  perfected. 

February.     Bland-Allison  silver  bill  passed. 

1879.  Jan.  i.     Resumption  of  specie  payments. 

1880.  Population  50,155,783. 

1881.  July  2.     Assassination  of  Garfield.     Dies  Sept.  19. 
1883.    Letter  postage  reduced  to  two  cents. 

188(?.     Presidential  Succession  Law  enacted. 

1889.  April  22.     Oklahoma  opened  to  settlers. 

1890.  Population  62,622,250. 
McKinley  tariff  enacted. 
Sherman  silver  law  passed. 

1893.  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago. 

1894.  Wilson  tariff  law  enacted. 

1895.  Dec.  17.     Cleveland  issues  his  Venezuelan  message. 

1897.  July  24.     Dingley  tariff  becomes  a  law. 

1898.  Feb.  15.     Destruction  of  the  Maine  at  Havana. 

April  25.    Congress  declares  war  against  Spain   (existing  from 

April  21 ). 

May  i.     Battle  of  Manila. 
July  1-3.     Battle  of  San  Juan. 
July  3.     Battle  of  Santiago. 
July  7.     Annexation  of  Hawaii. 
Dec.  10.    Treaty  with  Spain  signed  at  Paris. 

1899.  Samoan  treaty  made  by  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany. 

1900.  Civil  government  established  in  Alaska. 

Population   75,994,575.      (Alaska   and    island    possessions    not    in 
cluded.) 

1901.  May  3.     Civil  government  established  in  the  Philippines. 

Sept.  6.     President  McKinley  shot  by  an  assassin.     Dies  on  Sept.  14. 

1902.  Cuban  Republic  established. 

Great  anthracite  strike  in  Pennsylvania. 


xxviii  AMERICAN   CHRONOLOGY 

1903.  Feb.  14.     Cabinet  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor  created. 
July  4.     Pacific  cable  completed. 

Nov.  6.     The  United  States  recognizes  the  new  Republic  of  Panama. 
Nov.  1 8.    Canal  treaty  with  Panama  signed  by  Secretary  Hay. 
Dec.  2.     Ratified  by  Panama. 

1904.  Feb.  23.     Panama  treaty  ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate. 
Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  at  St.  Louis. 


SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF  THE 
UNITED   STATES 


SCHOOL  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES 

CHAPTER   I 
DISCOVER^  AND  EXPLORATION 

IN  these  modern  da)  -hen  we  can  converse  with  our 
friends  across  three  thousi  d  miles  of  sea,  when  the  record 
of  the  world's  events  lies  printed  before  us  within  a  few 
hours  of  their  happening,  it  is  hard  to  realize  that  it  is  but 
four  hundred  years  since  half  the  land  area  of  the  earth 
was  wholly  unknown  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  other  half. 

Voyages  of  the  Northmen.  —  The  records  of  the  first 
discovery  of  America  are  found  in  the  writings,  called 
"  sagas,"  of  the. Northmen.1  These  hardy  rovers  of  the  sea 
are  said  to  have  made  many  voyages  to  the  coast  of  North 
America,  the  best  known  and  probably  the  first  being  that 
of  Lief  Ericson,  whose  father,  Eric  the  Red,  had  founded 
a  colony  in  Greenland. 

Lief  Ericson  reached  the  coast  of  North  America  in  the 
year  1000,  made  a  temporary  settlement,  and  named  the 
place  Vinland,  because  it  abounded  in  grapes.  Vinland 
is  supposed  to  have  been  somewhere  on  the  coast  of 
New  England,  but  the  exact  spot  cannot  be  determined. 
The  Northmen  made  many  later  voyages,  but  at  length 
they  ceased  coming.  They  did  not  know  that  they  had 

1  Inhabitants  of  Norway. 
6  I 


2          SCHQQL;  KJSTOBY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

discovered  a  continent,  and  five  hundred  years  were  yet  to 
pass  before  its  existence  was  to  become  known  to  civilized 
man.  The  discovery  by  the  Northmen  added  little  to 
geographical  knowledge  and  left  no  permanent  effect  on 
the  world. 

Trade  with  the  East.  —  For  ages  before  the  time  of 
Columbus,  the  true  discoverer  of  the  New  World,  there 
had  been  a  flourishing  trade  between  Europe  and  Asia. 
The  goods  sent  from  Europe  to  the  Orient  were  linen  and 
woolen  goods,  coral,  glass  vessels,  and  wine  ;  those  received 
in  return  were  spices,  silks,  precious  stones,  ivory,  and 
pearls.  The  routes  were  long  and  fraught  with  dangers, 
and  as  the  goods  changed  hands  several  times  in  the  jour 
ney,  the  people  of  Europe  never  met  the  people  of  Asia. 

There  were  two  main  routes  of  trade  between  Europe 
and  the  East.  One  of  these  was  from  the  city  of  Venice, 
chiefly  by  water,  by  way  of  Cairo,  the  Red  Sea,  and  the 
Indian  Ocean.  The  other  was  from  Genoa  to  Con 
stantinople,  and  thence  overland  through  the  desert  by 
means  of  caravans.  After  a  long  period  of  rivalry 
between  these  two  Italian  cities,  one  of  these  routes  was 
closed  by  one  of  the  great  events  of  history,  —  the  fall  of 
Constantinople. 

For  more  than  a  thousand  years  this  city  on  the  Bos- 
phorus  was  one  of  the  chief  centers  of  Christendom,  but 
in  1453  it  was  captured  by  the  Turks,  and  the  crescent  sup 
planted  the  cross.  The  Turks  then  refused  the  use  of  the 
Bosphorus  and  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Christian  trader.  This 
led  the  Europeans  to  wonder  if  some  other  route,  an  "  out 
side  route,"  to  the  far-off  "land  where  the  spices  grow," 
might  not  be  found. 

The  Empire  of  Cathay.  —  Southeastern  Asia  was  known 
as  the  Indies,  and  this  term  was  also  used  to  designate 


GEOGRAPHICAL   KNOWLEDGE  3 

Japan,  or  Cipango,  and  parts  of  China  known  by  the  poetic 
name  of  Cathay. 

Cathay  was  believed  to  be  a  mighty  empire  of  fabulous 
wealth  and  gilded  cities.  This  belief  was  confirmed  by 
Marco  Polo,  who,  as  a  youth,  had  accompanied  his  father 
on  a  trading  tour  to  China.  Here  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  emperor  and  remained  for  twenty-four  years. 
Returning  in  the  year  1295  to  his  home  in  Venice,  he 
wrote  a  book  about  the  marvels  of  the  East,  describing  the 
gorgeous  landscapes,  the  broad  rivers,  and  the  towered 
cities.  In  this  book  Polo  confirmed  the  growing  belief  that 
there  was  an  ocean  east  of  Asia ;  and  as  the  earth  was 
thought  to  be  a  globe,  it  was  most  natural  to  believe  that 
the  ocean  east  of  Asia  might  be  the  same  as  the  ocean  west 
of  Europe,  and  if  so,  a  voyage  westward  must  bring  the 
mariner  to  the  Indies  of  the  East. 

Geographical  Knowledge.  —  For  many  hundred  years 
before  this  time  there  was  a  general  belief  among  the 
learned  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere.  But  if  there  were  peo 
ple  living  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth,  how  could  they 
walk  with  their  heads  downward  ?  This  was  a  question  that 
puzzled  the  wisest.1 

It  was  believed  that  Europe  occupied  the  center  of  the 
earth,  that  the  ocean  sloped  downward  in  all  directions,  and 
that  if  a  ship  passed  too  far  down,  it  would  not  be  able  to 
return.  Other  fantastic  theories  of  the  time  were,  that  the 
earth  was  belted  in  the  center  by  a  fiery  zone,  where  the 
seas  boiled  and  the  rays  of  the  sun  were  unbearable ;  that 

1  Copernicus,  who  first  taught  the  world  that  our  earth  is  but  a  ball  swing 
ing  in  space  and  that  "  upward  "  and  "  downward  "  are  but  relative  terms, 
was  born  in  1473.  The  law  of  gravity,  by  which  the  earth  attracts  and 
holds  smaller  bodies,  was  discovered  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  who  was  born 
in  1642. 


4  SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

in  the  remote  regions  the  ocean  was  inhabited  by  dreadful 
monsters,  while  above  the  waters  hovered  a  gigantic  bird 
that  could  carry  a  ship  away  in  its  talons.  One  story  was 
that  certain  phantom  islands  would  rise  from  the  water  and 
then  suddenly  disappear.  By  such  beliefs  mariners  were 
long  deterred  from  venturing  far  into  the  Sea  of  Darkness, 
as  the  Atlantic  Ocean  was  called.  But  these  theories  were 
for  the  most  part  exploded  many  years  before  the  New 
World  was  discovered. 

In  1487  Bartholomew  Diaz  completed  a  voyage  down 
the  African  coast,  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  far 
into  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  back  by  the  same  route  to  Lis 
bon,  the  starting  point.  He  found  no  fiery  zone,  no  sea- 
monsters,  and  the  journey  homeward  had  been  no  more 
uphill  than  the  outward  trip.  The  voyage  of  Diaz,  the 
greatest  in  history  up  to  that  time,  not  only  disproved  the 
fanciful  theories  of  the  Middle  Ages,  it  also  led  men  to 
believe  that  the  Indies  could  be  reached  by  sailing  around 
Africa. 

Italy  and  Portugal.  —  The  most  advanced  nation  in  navi 
gation  and  geographical  knowledge  at  this  period  was  Italy, 
and  the  leading  discoverers  of  the  time  were  Italians.1  But 
the  position  of  Italy  prevented  her  taking  the  lead  in  dis 
covery.  Portugal  was  the  foremost  nation  in  searching  for 
a  route  to  the  Indies  around  Africa.  But  the  distance  to 
the  Indies  by  the  African  route  was  very  great,  and  a 
knowledge  of  this  fact  led  men  to  cast  their  eyes  longingly 
toward  the  West.  It  was  believed  that  a  shorter  route 
could  be  found  by  sailing  across  the  Sea  of  Darkness,  but 
who  would  venture  on  a  journey  so  perilous  ?  A  young 
man  who  came  to  Portugal  from  Italy  about  1470  at  length 
furnished  an  answer  to  the  question. 

1  Notably,  Columbus,  Cabot,  Vespucius,  and  Verrazano. 


COLUMBUS 


CAREER  OF  CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS 

Columbus  was  born,  probably  about  1436,  in  Genoa,  a 
beautiful  city  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean. 
While  yet  a  child  his  attention  was  turned  to  the  sea,  and 
before  he  reached  manhood  he  was  a  skillful  mariner. 
Genoa  and  Venice  were  often  at  enmity  and  when  their 
ships  met  on  the  sea,  they  fought.  In  one  of  these  naval 
duels  Columbus  commanded  one  of  the  ships.  After  the 
men  had  fought  for  some  hours,  many  being  slain,  both 
vessels  took  fire.  Columbus  then  leaped  into  the  sea  and 
swam  to  shore,  six  miles  away.1 

Columbus  read  the  book  of  Marco  Polo  and  it  made  a 
deep  impression  on  his  life.  He  was  a  diligent  student  of 
nautical  science  and  in  that  study  acquired  all  the  knowl 
edge  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  Hearing  that  Portugal 
took  the  lead  in  the  study  of  navigation,  he  left  his  native 
land  and  became  a  resident  of  Lisbon.  Here  he  supported 
himself  by  making  maps  and  charts,  taking  an  occasional 
voyage  on  the  Atlantic.  After  living  in  Lisbon  for  some 
years  he  reached  the  conviction  that  the  East  could  be 
reached  by  sailing  westward,  that  he  could  find  the  Indies 
by  crossing  the  Atlantic,  and  that  God  had  raised  him  up 
to  do  this  great  service  for  mankind.  Not  having  the 
means  to  carry  out  his  project  and  believing  it  to  be  a  mis 
sion  of  such  great  importance  that  it  should  be  the  work  of 
a  nation  and  not  of  an  individual,  Columbus  applied  to  King 
John  II  of  Portugal  for  assistance.  The  king,  ordinarily 
a  man  of  probity,  now  did  an  unjust  thing :  he  noted  the 
plans  of  Columbus,  and  then  sent  a  secret  expedition  to 
make  the  discovery.  This  came  to  naught  and  Columbus, 

1  This  story  is  related  by  Columbus's  son,  Fernando. 


6          SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

hearing  of  the  treachery,  left  Portugal  in  anger  and  went 
to  Spain.  This  was  probably  in  1485. 

Columbus  in  Spain.  —  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  his  wife, 
were  the  joint  sovereigns  of  Spain.  They  were  in  the 
midst  of  a  long  war  with  the  Moors,  and  as  they  moved 
from  place  to  place  with  the  army,  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy, 
Columbus  followed.  At  various  times  he  succeeded  in 
getting  a  partial  hearing,  but  failed  to  secure  the  aid  he 
needed,  and  after  several  years  of  fruitless  toil,  he  de 
termined  to  quit  Spain  and  repair  to  France.1  Stopping 
at  a  monastery,  Columbus  again  related  the  story  of  his 
ambition.  The  prior,  Juan  Perez,  heard  and  believed. 
Being  a  friend  of  Queen  Isabella  and  well  known  to  her, 
he  hastened  to  lay  the  plans  of  Columbus  again  before 
her.  The  queen  was  converted.  She  sent  for  Columbus, 
and  at  length  arrangements  were  made  for  the  most  famous 
of  all  sea  voyages. 

The  Great  Voyage. — The  voyage  began  on  August  3, 
1492.  Three  little  vessels,  the  Santa  Maria,  the  Pinta, 
and  Nina,  had  been  fitted  out.  The  crew  was  a  motley 
crowd,  composed  in  part  of  criminals  released  from  prison. 
It  would  have  been  scarcely  possible  to  secure  a  crew  for 
an  undertaking  so  uncertain  in  its  outcome  but  for  the 
mistake  of  Columbus  in  believing  that  the  Atlantic  was 
much  narrower  than  it  is. 

The  weather  during  the  voyage  was  fine,  but  this  fact 
did  not  allay  the  superstitious  fears  of  the  sailors.  When, 
early  in  September,  they  left  the  last  of  the  Canary  Islands 
behind  and  launched  into  the  open  sea,  the  men  broke  into 
wails  and  sobs.  After  sailing  westward  for  several  weeks 

1  Columbus  had  sent  his  brother  Bartholomew  to  England  to  lay  the 
project  before  King  Henry  VII,  but  the  English  king  refused  to  be  interested 
in  it. 


LANDING   OF   COLUMBUS 


they  saw  unmistakable  signs  of  land  —  a  floating  branch 
of  a  tree,  a  staff  carved  by  the  hand  of  man,  flights  of 
birds  that  are  not  supposed  to  reach  midocean.  One 
night  soon  after  midnight  Columbus  saw  a  light  which 
seemed  like  a  torch  in  the  hands  of  some  one  walking. 


ft 


•K 


THE  FLEET  OF  COLUMBUS 

Next  morning,  October  12,  1492,  revealed  a  verdant  shore, 
six  miles  away,  covered  with  waving  trees. 

Columbus,  with  a  few  followers,  made  a  landing.  He 
was  overcome  with  emotion ;  he  burst  into  tears ;  he 
bowed  down  and  kissed  the  ground.  He  thanked  God 
for  the  realization  of  his  dream,  and,  drawing  his  sword, 


THE  LANDING  OF  COLUMBUS 
From  an  original  print 


Savage 


LATER  CAREER  OF  COLUMBUS          9 

took  possession  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
The  landing  place  is  supposed  to  have  been  Watling  Island, 
one  of  the  Bahamas.  Columbus  called  the  island  San  Sal 
vador  (Holy  Savior),  the  name  of  the  day,  October  12,  in 
the  Spanish  calendar. 

The  Spaniards  were  met  by  a  swarm  of  unclothed 
savages,  who  believed  that  the  strange  visitors  had  come 
from  the  skies.  Columbus,  thinking  that  he  had  reached 
the  Indies,  called  the  natives  Indians.  He  bore  a  friendly 
letter  from  the  king  and  queen  of  Spain  to  the  ruler  of 
Cathay  ;  but  where  were  the  towered  cities,  the  mighty 
rivers,  the  ivory,  the  spices,  and  the  gold  ?  Little  did 
Columbus  dream  that  the  empire  he  sought  was  ten  thou 
sand  miles  away  and  that  between  him  and  it  lay  an  undis 
covered  ocean  far  greater  in  extent  than  the  one  he  had 
crossed. 

After  cruising  among  the  Bahamas  for  ten  days,  the 
Spaniards  turned  southward  and  discovered  Cuba  and 
Haiti.  Though  they  had  not  found  Cathay,  Columbus 
believed  that  they  had  discovered  islands  lying  just  east  of 
Asia,  and  if  so,  a  new  route  to  the  Indies  was  found  at  last. 
Leaving  forty  of  his  crew,  with  provisions  for  a  year,  to 
found  a  colony  on  the  island  of  Haiti,  he  embarked  for 
home  on  January  4  and  reached  Palos,  whence  he  had 
started,  on  the  I5th  of  March. 

Later  Career  of  Columbus.  —  When  Columbus  arrived  in 
Spain  in  the  spring  of  1493,  the  sovereigns  and  people 
received  him  with  great  demonstrations  of  esteem.  Many 
who  had  formerly  jeered  him  in  the  streets  as  a  dreamer 
and  a  fanatic  now  joined  the  multitudes  in  raising  a  shout 
of  welcome  in  his  honor.  The  sovereigns  were  soon  busy 
fitting  Columbus  out  for  a  second  voyage.  With  seventeen 
vessels  he  embarked  in  September,  1493.  On  reaching  the 


10        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

place  where  he  had  left  the  colony,  he  found  that 
all  had  perished.  The  white  bones  scattered  about  told 
the  sad  story :  the  colony  had  been  destroyed  by  the  natives. 
Columbus  now  planted  a  colony  in  San  Domingo,  and  after 
spending  three  years  among  the  islands,  returned  to  Spain. 
Two  years  later  he  made  a  third  voyage  and  discovered 
Trinidad  and  the  mainland  of  South  America  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco  River.  Believing  himself  in  Asiatic  waters, 
he  took  this  river  to  -be  one  of  the  great  rivers  mentioned 
in  the  Bible  as  flowing  from  the  Garden  of  Eden. 

The  fortunes  of  the  great  navigator  now  took  a  down 
ward  turn.  He  had  enemies  at  the  Spanish  court  whe 
succeeded  in  poisoning  the  minds  of  the  sovereigns  against 
him.  An  agent,  sent  to  investigate  the  methods  of  Colum 
bus  in  governing  his  colony,  arrested  him  and  sent  him  to 
Spain  in  chains.  But  he  was  soon  released  by  the  good 
queen  and  he  made  a  fourth  voyage  to  the  New  World. 
Returning  to  Spain  broken  in  health  and  spirits,  he  died  at 
Valladolid  in  poverty  and  want  on  May  20,  1 506.  Columbus 
died  believing  that  he  had  discovered  the  eastern  coast  of 
Asia  and  had  opened  a  new  route  to  the  Indies.  The  real 
grandeur  of  his  discoveries  —  a  new  continent  rivaling  the 
old  in  extent,  the  seat  of  future  empires,  and  the  home  of 
millions  yet  to  be  born  —  perhaps  never  dawned  on  the 
mind  of  Columbus.  Other  navigators  soon  rose  to  promi 
nence  and  the  name  of  Columbus  fell  into  obscurity ;  but 
when,  as  years  passed,  it  became  known  that  it  was  not  the 
East  Indies  that  had  been  discovered,  but  a  vast  new  con 
tinent,  and  when  it  was  remembered  that  the  way  had  been 
opened  by  this  wandering  Genoese,  his  half -forgotten  name 
was  revived  and  he  was  placed  among  the  immortals.1 

1  See  note  on  Columbus,  p.  23. 


JOHN   CABOT 


OTHER  DISCOVERERS 

John  Cabot.  —  Christopher  Columbus  never  saw  the 
mainland  of  North  America,  and  his  discovery  of  South 
America  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  was  made  the  year 
after  John  Cabot  had  discovered  North  America.  John 
Cabot,  like  Columbus,  was  an  Italian  and  a  native  of  Genoa. 
He  was  a  merchant  and  seaman ;  he  removed  to  Bristol, 
England,  about  1490.  When  the  news  of  the  Spanish  dis 
coveries  reached  England,  no  doubt  King  Henry  VII 
regretted  that  he  had  not  listened  to  Bartholomew  Colum 
bus,  and  when  Cabot  applied  to  him  for  a  permit  to  seek 
western  lands,  it  was  readily  granted. 

For  ages  there  had  been  a  belief  in  England,  known  to 
legend  and  song,  that  there  were  lands  unknown,  some 
where,  far  away,  beyond  the  stormy  western  seas,  and 
widespread  interest  was  awakened  by  the  project  of  Cabot. 
He  sailed  in  the  MattJiew  with  a  crew  of  eighteen  men  on 
May  2,  1497,  and  landed,  seven  weeks  later,  probably  on 
the  coast  of  Labrador.  He  soon  returned  and  the  next 
year  made  a  second  voyage  to  the  coast  of  North  America 
and  followed  the  coast  as  far  south,  it  is  believed,  as  Cape 
Hatteras.  Cabot  supposed,  like  Columbus,  that  he  had 
reached  Cipango  and  Cathay. 

For  many  years  it  was  believed  that  Sebastian  Cabot, 
son  of  John  Cabot,  was  the  real  discoverer  of  North 
America.  But  it  is  now  known  that,  although  Sebastian 
probably  accompanied  his  father  on  the  first  voyage,  the 
sole  honor  of  the  discovery  belongs  to  the  father. 

The  Cabot  discoveries  created  great  excitement  in  Eng 
land,  but  it  soon  subsided.  Many  years  later,  however, 
when  it  became  known  that  a  new  continent  had  been 


12        SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

found,  England  laid  claim  to  the  whole  of  North  America 

on  the  ground  of  the  Cabot  discoveries. 

Naming  of  America.  —  Many  years  passed  after  the  dis 
coveries  made  by  Colum 
bus  and  Cabot  before  it 
was  known  that  a  great 
new  continent  had  been 
found.  Meantime  others 
were  making  voyages  to 
the  new  lands.1  Among 
them  was  Americas  Ves- 
pucius,  a  native  of  Flor 
ence,  Italy  ;  a  resident 
of  Seville,  Spain.  In 
one  of  his  voyages,  prob 
ably  in  1501,  he  sailed 
far  down  the  coast  of 
Brazil.  Believing  it  to 
be  a  continent,  he  wrote 

AMER.CUS  VKSPUCIUS  a  brief    aCCOUnt    °f   the 

"  New    World,"    as  he 

called  it.  The  pamphlet  awakened  great  interest  through 
out  Europe ;  its  author  was  hailed  as  the  discoverer  of  a 
continent,  while  Columbus  was  remembered  as  discovering 
only  some  unimportant  islands. 

In  1 507  a  German  professor,  Waldseemiiller,  in  a 
pamphlet  on  geography  suggested  that  this  fourth  part  of 
the  world  be  named  America,  after  its  discoverer.2  He 

1  In  the  year  1500  a  Portuguese  navigator  named  Cabral,  while  attempting 
to  follow  the  course  of  Vasco  da  Gama  (who  had  reached  the  Indies  by  sailing 
round  Africa),  swung  too  far  westward  and  touched  the  coast  of  Brazil.     This 
was  a  real,  though  accidental,  discovery  of  America   and  might  have  been 
made  had  Columbus  never  lived. 

2  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  were  known  as  the  first,  second,  and  third  parts. 


14        SCHOOL  HISTORY  OF   THE  UNITED   STATES 

also  made  a  map,  the  same  year,  1507,  using  the  name 
America  for  the  New  World.1 

While  it  is  agreed  that  the  New  World  should  have 
been  called  after  its  true  discoverer,  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  the  name  America  was  given  through  igno 
rance  of  the  facts  and  that  no  one  meant  to  defraud 
Columbus. 

Discovery  of  Florida.  —  Had  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage 
continued  his  course  westward  for  only  a  few  days  longer 
he  would  have  reached  the  coast  of  Florida,  but  changing 
to  the  southwest,  he  came  to  the  Bahama  Islands.  The 
first  Spaniard  to  set  foot  on  the  soil  of  the  United  States 
was  Ponce  de  Leon  (Pon'  tha  da  la  on'),  who  had  accom 
panied  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage  and  later  had 
become  governor  of  Haiti,  or  Hispaniola,  and  still  later 
of  Porto  Rico.  De  Leon  heard  of  a  land  far  away  in 
which  there  was  said  to  be  a  magical  spring  whose  waters 
had  the  power  to  restore  youth  to  the  aged. 

In  the  spring  of  1513  he  set  out  with  three  vessels  to 
find  this  fountain  of  youth,  as  well  as  to  discover  new 
lands.  On  Easter  Sunday  he  and  his  men  anchored 
near  the  site  on  which  St.  Augustine  was  afterward 
founded.  He  called  the  land  Florida  after  the  Spanish 
name  for  Easter,  Pascua  Florida,  and  took  possession  in 
the  name  of  his  sovereign.  Eight  years  later  De  Leon 
again  went  to  Florida  with  a  company,  in  the  hope  of 
founding  a  colony ;  but  the  natives  rose  against  them,  and 
De  Leon  was  shot  with  a  poisoned  arrow.  Not  long  after 
this  he  died  of  his  wound  in  Cuba. 

Balboa  discovers  the  Pacific  Ocean.  —  Vasco  Nunez  de 

1  A  copy  of  the  original  of  this  map  was  recently  found  in  an  old  library  in 
Wiirttemberg.  The  name  America  was  first  used  for  Brazil  only.  Not  until 
about  1541  was  it  applied  to  all  the  land  area  of  the  New  World. 


FIRST    VOYAGE   ROUND   THE   WORLD 


Balboa  was  a  bankrupt,  an  adventurer,  and  a  leader  of 
rebels.  Escaping  from  his  creditors  in  Santo  Domingo, 
he  went  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  became  a  leader  of 
a  band  of  freebooters.  Being  informed  one  day  by  an 
Indian  chief  that  beyond  the  mountains  was  a  great  sea 
and  that  the  lands  bordering  on  it  abounded  in  silver  and 
gold,  he  led  his  company  thither.  Ascending  the  moun 
tain  alone,  in  advance  of 
his  men,  he  looked  down 
on  a  vast  expanse  of 
water,  which  he  called  the 
South  Sea.  He  afterward 
waded  into  its  waters  and 
declared  that  the  sover 
eigns  of  Spain  should  hold 
possession  of  this  and 
of  its  islands  and  coasts 
"while  the  earth  revolves, 
and  until  the  universal 
judgment  of  mankind."1 

First  Voyage  round  the 
World.  —  In  1519  a  Por 
tuguese  named  Ferdinand 
Magellan  (Ma  jel'  Ian),  MAGELLAN 

in  the  service   of    Spain, 

crossed  the  Atlantic,  sailed  down  the  coast  of  South 
America,  through  the  straits  that  bear  his  name,  and  into 
the  broad,  ocean  that  had  been  discovered  a  few  years 
before  by  Balboa.  So  smooth  and  peaceful  was  the 
boundless  plain  of  water  that  he  called  it  Pacific,  and  this 
name  eventually  supplanted  that  given  by  Balboa. 

1  A  few  years  later  Balboa  was  put  to  death  by  the  governor  of  Darien,  on 
a  charge  of  treason. 


16        SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

Magellan  and  his  men,  after  sailing  up  the  western  coast 
of  South  America,  struck  out  boldly  westward,  and  crossed 
the  Pacific  to  the  Philippine  Islands.  Here  in  an  encounter 
with  the  natives  Magellan  was  killed.  The  survivors  of 
his  crew  continued  their  journey,  sailing  round  Africa  and 
reaching  Spain  in  1521.  They  had  five  vessels  when  they 
started  and  but  one  when  they  returned.  A  large  majority 
of  the  men  had  perished  on  the  voyage.  The  object  of 
Magellan's  voyage  was  to  find  a  southwest  passage  to  the 
Indies ;  the  end  it  accomplished  was,  it  furnished  unmis 
takable  proof  that  the  earth  is  a  globe. 

Conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru.  —  Though  but  indirectly 
bearing  on  the  history  of  the  United  States,  it  may  be 
mentioned  that,  in  1519-1521,  Hernando  Cortez  with  a  few 
hundred  men  conquered  Mexico,  took  possession  of  the 
capital,  and  was  made  governor  of  the  country ;  and  that 
in  1531-1532  Francisco  Pizarro,  with  a  small  band  of  men, 
conquered  Peru,  plundered  the  natives  of  vast  quantities 
of  gold,  and  treacherously  put  to  death  the  chief,  who  had 
fallen  into  his  power. 

EXPLORATIONS 

What  may  be  termed  the  period  of  discovery  was  fol 
lowed  by  the  period  of  exploration,  though  it  is  not  always 
easy  to  draw  a  line  between  the  discoverers  and  the  ex 
plorers.  Spain  had  taken  the  lead  in  discovery  ;  she  took 
the  lead  also  in  exploration.  Before  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  Spanish  explorers  had  overrun  a  territory 
in  the  New  World  far  greater  than  the  whole  of  Europe. 
Much  of  this  was  in  Central  and  South  America  and  is 
not  directly  connected  with  the  history  of  the  United 
States.  The  chief  motives  of  the  explorers  were  a  thirst 
for  gold,  a  love  of  adventure,  the  hope  of  finding  a  passage 


NARVAEZ   IN    FLORIDA  1 7 

to  the  Indies,  to  which  were  added  some  pretense  of  pre 
paring  for  future  settlement,  and  a  desire  to  convert  the 
natives  to  Christianity. 

Narvaez  in  Florida.  —  Fired  by  the  conquest  of  Mexico  by 
Cortez,  Panfilo  de  Narvaez  (Nar  va'  eth)  determined  to 
make  a  similar  conquest  in  Florida.  Authorized  by  his 
government,  he  sailed  for  Florida  in  1528  with  an  army 
of  four  hundred  men.  The  Indians  were  hostile  and  the 
Spaniards  suffered  greatly  from  their  attacks,  from  hunger, 
and  from  wading  through  swamps.  Many  of  them  perished 
and  found  a  grave  in  the  wilderness.  They  found  no 
gold,  and  after  a  weary  march  of  many  months  the  sur 
vivors  returned  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  only  to  find  that 
their  ships  were  gone.  They  built  a  few  frail  boats  and 
sailed  westward,  but  all  their  boats  except  one  were 
wrecked  in  a  violent  storm.  Narvaez  was  among  the  lost. 

The  surviving  vessel  made  a  landing  and  its  few  occu 
pants  again  became  wanderers  in  the  forest.  The  surviv 
ors  were  at  length  reduced  to  four,  Cabeza  de  Vaca  and 
three  companions.  For  years  they  wandered  aimlessly  ; 
they  traveled  more  than  two  thousand  miles,  and  after 
eight  years  from  the  time  they  had  started  with  Narvaez 
they  reached  a  Spanish  settlement  in  northern  Mexico  on 
the  Pacific  coast. 

The  «  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola."  —  Wonderful  were  the  tales 
told  by  De  Vaca  of  his  long  journeyings.  He  told  of 
visiting  many  Indian  tribes  and  of  having  heard  of  won 
derful  cities  abounding  in  gold  and  precious  stones.  The 
story  of  the  golden  cities  fired  the  Spanish  imagination 
and  led  to  its  connection  with  two  legends.  One  was  a 
legend  of  the  Indians  of  Mexico  that  about  forty  days' 
march  to  the  northward  were  seven  cities  of  great  wealth. 
The  other  was  that  long  ago  a  bishop  of  Lisbon  had  sailed 


18        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

with  many  followers  into  the  Sea  of    Darkness  and   had 
founded  seven  cities  on  a  group  of  islands. 

These  two  legends  were  easily  confounded  by  the  imagi 
native  Spaniards  of  Mexico,  and  as  the  story  of  De  Vaca 
seemed  to  agree  with  the  legends  there  was  little  room  to 
doubt  the  existence  of  the  wonderful  cities.  And  yet,  to 
make  sure,  a  priest  named  Marcos  was  sent  to  explore  and 


PUEBLOS  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

report.  After  many  days'  traveling  he  ascended  a  hill 
and  came  in  view  of  one  of  the  cities.  The  buildings  were 
great  apartment  houses,  several  stories  in  height,  each  being 
the  home  of  many  families.  As  the  natives  were  hostile 
Marcos  did  not  enter;  he  returned  and  told  his  story. 
What  he  had  seen  was  one  of  the  Zuni  (Zoo'  nye)  pueblos 
of  New  Mexico,  known  as  Cibola,  and  the  "  Seven  Cities 
of  Cibola  "  became  still  more  real  to  the  Spanish  mind. 
Great  was  the  desire  to  explore  this  marvelous  region,  and 
this  feeling  led  to  the  two  most  remarkable  exploring  tours 


CORONADCTS   EXPEDITION  t$ 

of  the  time,  covering  most  of  the  southern  half  of  the 
soil  of  the  United  States  —  those  of  Coronado  and  of 
De  Soto. 

Coronado's  Expedition.  —  Coronado  was  one  of  the  Span 
ish  governors  of  Mexico.  In  1540  he  started  with  an 
army  of  eleven  hundred  men  to  find  the  seven  cities. 
After  a  terrible  march  through  deserts  and  over  moun 
tains  he  reached  the  land  of  the  strange  pueblos,  which 
he  conquered  one  after  another.  But  he  was  greatly  dis 
appointed  in  finding  no  gold.  He  next  led  his  army 
northward.  They  encountered  great  herds  of  buffalo  and 
crossed  vast  treeless  plains,  proceeding  probably  as  far  as 
the  valley  of  the  Platt  River.  Still  they  found  no  gold, 
and  after  two  years  of  wandering  Coronado,  broken 
hearted,  led  the  fragments  of  his  shattered  army  back  to 
Mexico. 

De  Soto;  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi.  —  Ferdinand  de  Soto, 
a  Spanish  nobleman  who  had  become  rich  by  aiding  Pizarro 
in  the  conquest  of  Peru,  also  heard  wonderful  stories  about 
Florida  and  the  southwest,  and  determined  to  lead  an 
expedition  in  search  of  gold.  With  a  splendid  army  of 
nearly  six  hundred  men  and  more  than  two  hundred  horses 
De  Soto  reached  the  coast  of  Florida  in  the  spring  of  1539. 
Then  began  a  march  of  several  years  through  the  wilder 
ness.  The  army  had  many  fierce  encounters  with  the 
Indians  ;  but  some  tribes  were  friendly.  Hearing  that  far 
in  the  north  there  was  a  land  abounding  in  gold,  occupied 
by  a  tribe  which  was  ruled  over  by  a  young  queen,  a  beau 
tiful  girl  of  eighteen  years,  De  Soto  turned  his  steps  to  the 
northward.  He  reached  the  place,  on  the  banks  of  a  beau 
tiful  river,  supposed  to  be  the  Savannah.  He  met  the 
Indian  queen,  who  received  him  with  friendliness.  After 
remaining  here  for  some  weeks  and  finding  the  "gold" 


20 


SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


to  be  only  an  alloy  of  copper,  the  Spaniards  again  turned 
their  weary  eyes  to  the  wilderness. 

Moving  southward,  they  encountered    a  fierce  tribe  of 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI  RIVER 


Indians  and  the  battle  of  Mobile  was  fought.  In  this  bat 
tle  the  Spaniards  slew  thousands,  but  the  victory  was  a 
dear  one.  Many  of  their  men  and  horses  were  killed  and 
all  their  baggage  was  burned.  Weary  and  worn,  the 


FROBISHER   AND   DRAKE  21 

Spaniards  turned  northwestward  and  in  the  spring  of 
1541  discovered  the  Mississippi  River,  probably  near  the. 
boundary  between  Tennessee  and  Mississippi.  De  Soto 
did  not  realize  the  importance  of  his  discovery ;  he 
thought  only  of  gold.  Crossing  the  great  river,  the  Span 
iards  made  a  detour  far  toward  the  northwest,  consum 
ing  another  year,  and  returned  to  the  Mississippi  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Red  River.  De  Soto  was  haggard  and 
worn  and  a  slow  fever  was  sapping  his  life.  He  died  in 
May,  1542,  and  at  midnight,  in  the  hollow  of  an  oaken 
log,  his  body  was  sunk  into  the  depths  of  the  great 
stream  which  he  had  discovered.  A  year  and  a  half  later 
the  survivors  of  his  party  reached  a  Spanish  settlement 
in  Mexico. 

Frobisher  and  Drake.  —  Three  quarters  of  a  century  passed 
after  the  Cabot  discoveries  before  another  English  expedi 
tion  set  out  for  the  New-World.  At  length,  after  vast 
tracts  had  been  explored  by  other  peoples,  an  interest  was 
reawakened  in  England. 

Sir  Martin  Frobisher  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  1576  on  the 
old  quest  for  a  northwest  passage.  He  sailed  through  the 
strait  that  is  called  by  his  name,  and  afterward  made  two 
additional  voyages  to  the  same  region. 

Far  greater  was  the  voyage  of  Sir  Francis  Drake,  who 
was  the  first  after  Magellan  to  sail  round  the  world. 
Leaving  Plymouth,  England,  in  December,  1577,  Drake 
crossed  the  Atlantic,  passed  through  Magellan  Strait,  pro 
ceeded  to  the  coast  of  California,  and  took  possession  of 
the  country  for  the  queen  of  England.  He  then  crossed  the 
Pacific,  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  sailing  round  Africa, 
reached  England  in  November,  1580.  Drake  captured 
many  Spanish  vessels  and  was  the  first  to  weaken  Spain 
by  attacking  her  on  the  sea. 


22        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Other  Explorers.  —  Among  other  explorers  may  be  men 
tioned  Cortereal,  a  Portuguese,  who  explored  the  coast  of 
Labrador  in  1500;  Gordillo,  who  explored  the  southeastern 
coast  of  the  United  States  in  1526;  Verrazano,  an  Italian 
in  the  employ  of  the  king  of  France,  who,  in  1524,  cruised 
along  the  American  coast  from  Cape  Hatteras  to  Nova 
Scotia;  Jacques  Cartier,  a  Frenchman,  who,  in  1534,  ex 
plored  the  coasts  about  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  and 
the  next  year,  in  another  voyage,  ascended  the  St.  Law 
rence  as  far  as  the  site  of  Montreal.  Other  explorers, 
some  of  whom  were  settlers  as  well,  will  be  noticed  in  a 
later  chapter. 

SUMMARY 

Four  hundred  years  ago  half  the  earth  was  unknown  to  the  people  of 
the  other  half. 

Trade  between  Europe  and  Asia  had  been  carried  on  for  ages.  One 
route  was  closed  by  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  in  1453. 
This  event  led  to  efforts  to  find  an  "  outside  route  "  to  Asia.  The  earth 
was  believed  to  be  a  sphere,  but  popular  fancy  filled  the  Atlantic  with 
impassable  barriers. 

Christopher  Columbus,  an  Italian  sent  by  Spain,  discovered  the  New 
World  in  1492,  landing  at  the  Bahama  Islands. 

Many  voyages  to  the  new  lands  followed  the  discovery  of  Columbus. 
John  Cabot,  an  Italian  in  the  service  of  England,  was  the  first  to  dis 
cover  continental  America  (1497).  Many  years  later  England  laid 
claim  to  all  of  North  America  on  the  ground  of  the  Cabot  discovery. 

Americus  Vespucius,  an  Italian  in  the  service  of  Spain,  wrote  an 
account  of  Brazil,  which  he  had  visited,  and  was  honored  by  having  the 
New  World  called  by  his  name. 

Balboa  discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  called  it  the  South  Sea,  and 
Ponce  de  Leon  discovered  Florida  (1513). 

Magellan  made  the  first  voyage  round  the  globe,  and  Cortez  conquered 
Mexico  (1519-1521). 

Narvaez,  in  1528,  explored  Florida  with  four  hundred  men.  He  and 
all  his  men,  except  De  Vaca  and  three  companions,  were  lost. 

Coronado,  with  an  army  of  eleven  hundred,  started  in  search  of  the 


CHARACTER   OF   COLUMBUS  23 

"seven  cities"  in  1540  and  traversed  the  plains  west  of  the  Mississippi 
to  the  valley  of  the  Platt  River. 

De  Soto  led  a  fine  army  of  six  hundred  men  to  Florida  in  1 539,  and  in  a 
wandering  tour  of  several  years  discovered  the  Mississippi  River  (1541). 

Martin  Frobisher  made  a  voyage  to  the  waters  north  of  Labrador  in 
1576,  and  Francis  Drake,  in  1580,  completed  his  great  voyage  round  the 
world,  the  second  in  history. 

NOTE 

Columbus.  —  Las  Casas,  the  Spanish  priest,  who  knew  Columbus,  describes 
him  as  a  man  of  striking  appearance.  He  was  tall  and  muscular,  with  light  gray 
eyes,  cheeks  as  ruddy  as  those  of  a  boy,  and  hair  as  white  as  snow.  He  was  very 
religious,  but  not  above  his  day  and  generation  in  morals,  nor  was  he  a  reformer 
in  any  sense.  He  captured  an  Indian  chief  by  treachery  while  pretending  to  be 
his  friend,  kidnaped  hundreds  of  natives  and  sent  them  to  Spain  for  the  slave  mar 
ket,  and  inaugurated  the  treacherous  methods  of  dealing  with  the  Indians  that  were 
afterward  carried  on  by  Spain  for  hundreds  of  years.  In  one  of  his  voyages  from 
Lisbon  it  is  said  that  Columbus  sailed  far  to  the  northward,  touching  the  coast  of 
Iceland;  but  it  is  not  believed  that  he  ever  heard  of  the  discoveries  of  the  North 
men.  It  has  long  been  believed  that  Columbus  was  in  correspondence  with  Tos- 
canelli,  the  famous  Florentine  astronomer  and  geographer  ;  but  recent  investiga 
tions  seem  to  indicate  that  this  view  is  erroneous.  After  Columbus's  death,  his  body 
rested  in  the  cathedral  at  Seville  till  about  1541  when  it  was  removed  to  Santo 
Domingo,  Haiti.  When  that  island  was  transferred  to  France  in  1795,  the  coffin 
was  removed  to  Havana,  Cuba,  and  in  1898,  again  back  to  Spain.  There  is  some 
reason  to  believe,  however,  that  when  the  removal  from  Haiti  was  made,  the  wrong 
sarcophagus  was  taken  ;  and  if  so,  the  remains  of  the  great  discoverer  still  rest  in 
Haiti. 

REFERENCES 

[NOTE.  —  The  books  and  other  references  cited  at  the  ends  of  the  chapters  of 
this  history  are  carefully  chosen  accounts  that  are  most  probably  found  in  school  or 
home  libraries,  and  are  suitable  for  young  readers.  The  page  is  not  given,  as  the 
topic  desired  in  any  book  can  usually  be  readily  found  by  consulting  the  index. 
Every  pupil  should  aim  to  read  more  on  any  important  subject  than  is  given  in  this 
text-book.] 

Elson,  "  History  of  the  United  States  "  ;  Hart,  "  Source  Book  "  ;  Hig- 
ginson,  "  Larger  History,"  Vol.  I ;  Thwaites.  "  The  Colonies  "  ;  Adams, 
"  Christopher  Columbus  "  ;  Fiske,  "  The  Discovery  of  America,  Vol.  I." 


CHAPTER    II 
THE   INDIAN 

THE  most  wonderful  thing  discovered  by  the  Europeans 
when  they  first  came  to  America  was  the  new  race  of  their 
own  human  kind.  Here  was  a  race  hitherto  unknown  to 
civilized  man,  scattered  thinly  from  ocean  to  ocean  and 
from  Alaska  to  Patagonia. 


DAKOTA  Bow  AND  QUIVER,  WITH  BOW-SACK 

The  natives,  who  came  to  be  called  Indians,  were  a  bar 
barous  people,  many  of  them  nomadic,  living  chiefly  by 


INDIAN  Bows 

hunting  and  fishing.     They  used  the  bow  and  arrow,  but 
had  not  learned  the  use  of  firearms ;  they  had  domesticated 

24 


INDIAN    CHARACTERISTICS  25 

the  dog,  but  not  the  horse.  It  requires  a  vastly  greater 
land  area  to  support  a  people  from  the  natural  products  of 
forest  and  stream  than  to  support  a  people  who  till  the 
soil.  The  Indian  population  was  therefore  never  great, 
never  perhaps  more  than  half  a  million  at  any  one  time, 
within  the  area  of  the  United  States. 

How  the  Indians  came  to  inhabit  America,  and  how 
many  ages  they  had  dwelt  here  before  the  coming  of  the 
white  man,  will  probably  never  be  known,  as  they  had  not 


TOMAHAWK  AND  STONE-HEADED  CLUB 


recorded  their  own  history.  It  is  needless  to  give  our 
space  to  the  many  conjectures  as  to  the  origin  of  the  race. 
Indian  Characteristics.  —  In  color  the  typical  Indian  is 
cinnamon  brown ;  he  has  high  cheek  bones,  small  dark 
eyes,  straight,  raven-black  hair,  and  scanty  beard.  The 
race  resembles  the  Mongolian  more  than  any  other.  Phys 
ically  the  Indian  was  equal  to  any  other  race,  mentally 
he  was  weak  and  he  was  strong,1  —  a  child  as  well  as  a 
man.  He  was  a  child  in  the  simplicity  of  his  tastes  and  of 

1  This  refers  to  the  Indian  three  hundred  years  ago  when  the  Europeans 
first  made  settlements  on  our  soil. 


26        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

his  wants,  a  man  in  his  cunning,  his  power  of  endurance, 
and  the  range  of  his  passions.  He  dwelt  in  the  vast 
solitudes  of  nature  with  his  family  and  kindred  in  apparent 
contentment.  He  chased  the  deer  and  the  buffalo  with  a 
fleetness  unknown  to  other  men ;  he  strove  with  his  enemy 
in  battle ;  his  rude  song  resounded  from  hill  to  hill. 

Indian  Home  Life.  — The  great  majority  of  the  Indians 
lived  in  wigwams,  or  movable  tents,  which  were  adorned 
with  human  scalps  or  trophies  of  the  chase.  There  were 


CALUMETS,  INDIAN  PEACE-PIPES 

exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  Iroquois  of  New  York,  the 
Pueblos  of  the  Southwest,  the  Aztecs  of  Mexico,  and  the 
Incas  of  South  America  had  more  substantial  houses  and 
were  less  nomadic  in  their  habits  than  most  of  the  tribes. 

The  Indian  warrior,  when  not  engaged  in  war  or  in  the 
chase,  usually  slept  or  smoked  during  the  day,  and  at  even 
ing  he  would  sit  with  his  family  and  friends  and  tell  over  the 
legends  and  myths  of  his  tribe  that  had  been  handed  down 
from  generation  to  generation,  or  he  would  dilate  on  his 
own  deeds  of  valor  in  the  chase  or  on  the  battlefield.  His 


INDIAN    RELIGION 


squaw  would  spend  the  day  dressing  skins,  doing  bead- 
work,  or  preparing  food  for  the  family.  The  children 
would  play  and  gambol  at  will,  and  with  no  restraint  from 
the  parents.  In  many  of  the  games  whole  communities 
would  engage  —  men,  women,  and  children. 

The  woman  did  the  menial  work.  She  raised  the  corn, 
gathered  the  berries,  and  managed  the  home  as  seemed 
best  in  her  eyes, 
while  the  man 
performed  the 
less  constant  but 
more  arduous 
duties  of  the 
chase  and  the 
battlefield. 

Family  quar 
rels  were  almost 
unknown.  If 
the  fare  was 
scanty,  as  it 
often  was,  the 
man  did  not 
chide  his  wife, 
he  accepted  what  was  set  before  him  without  murmuring. 

Indian  Religion. — The  American  Indians  were  all  reli 
gious,  but  their  religion  was  grossly  corrupted  by  super 
stition.  In  many  tribes  there  was  some  idea  of  a  Great 
Spirit,  who  taught  the  waters  to  flow,  and  caused  the 
changing  of  the  seasons,  who  brought  the  thunders  and 
the  rain,  and  furnished  daily  food  for  his  children.  But 
for  the  most  part  the  Indian  believed  only  that  spirits 
dwelt  in  animals  and  trees  and  in  everything  about  him. 
His  imagination  peopled  the  air,  the  water,  and  the  forest 


INDIAN  HEAD-DRESS 
Made  of  eagle  feathers  and  buffalo  horn 


28        SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

with  living,  invisible  things  and  filled  him  with  superstitious 
fear.  He  believed  in  signs  and  omens  and  dreams.  He 
worshiped  the  sun  and  the  stars,  the  rivers  and  the  moun 
tains,  but  seldom  did  he  bow  down  to  that  which  he  had 
made  with  his  own  hands.  He  offered  to  his  gods  the 
best  of  his  possessions,  but  only  here  and  there  did  he 
offer  human  sacrifice. 

Most  tribes  believed  in  a  future  life,  a  "  happy  hunting 
ground  "  ;  but  the  conscience  and  morals  of  the  Indian 
were  based  on  tribal  custom,  rather  than  on  religion.  His 


SNOW-SHOES  MADE  BY  ALGONQUIN  INDIANS 

conscience,  which  he  followed  with  the  utmost  precision, 
bade  him  be  honest  and  kind  with  his  own  people,  but 
permitted  him  to  steal  from  his  enemies  and  even  to  tor 
ture  them  to  death.1 

The  Indian  as  a  Hunter  and  Warrior. —  Many  of  the 
Indian  tribes  received  a  partial  supply  of  food  by  tilling 
the  soil,  by  raising  corn  and  a  few  other  products  in  the 
crudest  manner.  Fishing  was  also  engaged  in  by  many  ; 
but  the  great  source  of  food  supply  was  the  flesh  of  wild 
animals  taken  in  the  forest,  and  to  capture  these  animals 
with  his  imperfect  means  the  Indian  hunter  displayed  a 

1  See  Elson's  "  History  of  the  United  States  "  for  a  fuller  description  of 
the  Indian  character. 


THE    INDIAN    AS   A   HUNTER    AND   WARRIOR        29 

skill  that  was  astonishing.  He  had  a  wonderful  knowledge 
of  the  haunts  and  habits  of  the  denizens  of  the  woods  ;  he 
could  follow  a  trail  with  the  keenness  of  a  bloodhound ; 
he  could  imitate  the  bark  of  the  wolf,  the  hoot  of  the  owl, 
and  the  whistle  of  a  bird,  and  deceive  those  creatures  in 
their  own  abodes.1 

In  war  the  Indian  was  daring  and  brave,  but  he  would 
not  fight  an  enemy  fairly  if  he  could  surprise  and  assassi 
nate  him.  He  would  lurk  in  a  ravine,  or  a  dark  shadow,  and 


MOHAWK  WEAPONS 


leap  upon  his  foe,  uttering  at  the  same  instant  a  yell  so 
piercing  that  no  one  who  ever  heard  it  could  forget  it  to 
the  end  of  his  life.2 

In  battle  the  Indians  followed  no  particular  rules.  Each 
brave  did  what  seemed  right  in  his  eyes.  In  power  of 
endurance  and  capacity  for  suffering  the  Indian  surpassed 
all  other  men.  He  could  travel  on  foot  without  food 
for  hundreds  of  miles.  When  captured  by  an  enemy, 
he  would  suffer  himself  to  be  tortured  to  death  without 
permitting  a  cry  to  escape  his  lips.  Indians  often  tortured 

1  McMaster's  "  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,"  Vol.  I,  p.  6. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  7. 


30        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED    STATES 

their   enemies    when  captured ;    but  under   ordinary  con 
ditions  the  Indians  were  not  cruel. 

Civilization.  —  The  Indians  have  shown  little  capacity 
for  civilization.  Some  tribes,  as  the  Algonquins,  the  Iro- 
quois,  and  Aztecs,  were  advanced  above  the  barbarous 
stage ;  but  of  the  great  majority  this  was  not  true,  and 
ages  of  contact  with  the  most  enlightened  race  have 
wrought  little  change  in  Indian  culture.  The  race  seems 
content  with  its  mode  of  life  of  long  ago ;  it  makes  no 
effort  to  improve  or  to  become  a  world  force. 


HOME  LIFE  OF  THE  INDIANS 

The  Indian  languages  are  laden  with  poetic  beauty  ;  but 
no  Indian  has  written  a  poem  that  will  live  ;  no  Indian  has 
invented  a  machine,  or  founded  a  school,  or  established  a 
printing  press. 

The  Indian  is  not  at  ease  in  the  centers  of  civilization  ;  he 
pines  for  his  forest  home.  The  hum  of  industry  in  the  great 
city  has  no  charm  for  the  Indian.  He  prefers  to  hear  the 
scream  of  the  wild  bird,  the  howl  of  the  wolf,  the  soughing 
of  the  wind  among  the  trees.  He  is  not  educated  and 


RELATIONS   OF   THE   INDIANS   AND   COLONISTS       31 

does  not  wish  to  be.  He  does  not  desire  to  know  about 
the  great  world  beyond  his  home  in  the  wilderness.  He 
does  not  know  his  own  age ;  he  notes  the  changes  of  the 
seasons  and  counts  time  by  the  moon ;  but  how  many 
moons  ago  since  he  was  born,  or  since  his  children  were 
born,  he  does  not  know  and  he  does  not  care.1 

Relations  of  the  Indians  and  the  Colonists.  —  Frequently 
during  the  colonial  period  the  Indians  and  white  settlers 
were  at  enmity  and  many  were  the  wars  between  them. 
The  wars  were  usually  caused  by  encroachment  of  the 
settlers  on  lands  claimed  by  the  red  men,  or  by  fraudulent 
practices  of  dishonest  white  traders. 

More  frequently,  however,  the  relations  between  the 
two  races  were  pleasant.  The  Indians  learned  much  from 
their  white  neighbors  —  the  use  of  the  horse,  of  firearms, 
and  of  various  kinds  of  tools  —  by  which  their  means  of 
gaining  a  livelihood  were  made  easier;  but  they  did  not 
generally  absorb  the  higher  civilization  of  the  settlers. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  settlers  learned  much  from  the 
Indians.  They  learned  how  to  raise  corn,  a  cereal  then  un 
known  in  Europe,  how  to  make  maple  sugar,  and  how  to  tan 
skins.  It  was  thus  through  the  aid  of  their  dusky  neigh 
bors  that  they  obtained  a  plentiful  supply  of  food  and  were 
at  length  enabled  to  engage  in  a  lucrative  fur  trade  with 
England. 

The  colonists  were  also  greatly  benefited  by  the  Indi 
ans'  knowledge  of  the  waterways  and  by  Indian  trails. 
Ages  of  tramping  of  the  red  men  through  the  forests 
had  worn  trails  which  became  very  useful  to  the  colo 
nists  in  their  communication  with  one  another.  The  first 
roads  and  turnpikes  were  usually  built  on  the  lines  of  the 
Indian  trails. 

1  Elson's  History  (one-volume  edition),  p.  37. 


32        SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


NATIONS  AND  TRIBES 

The  Indians  of  North  America  were  divided  into  several 
great  families,  distinguished  by  language,  habits,  and  per 
sonal  appearance,  and  each  family  was  composed  of  many 
different  tribes. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  families  was  the  Iroquois, 
living  for  the  most  part  in  New  York.  Some  of  the  tribes, 

however,  extended 
into  Canada,  the 
Ohio  Valley,  and 
the  South.  They 
built  connected  log 
houses,  fortified 
their  villages,  and 
cultivated  the  soil. 
They  were  noted  for 
physical  strength, 
courage,  and  their 
warlike  propensi 
ties.  Five  tribes 
of  the  Iroquois,  - 
the  Cayugas,1  Mo 
hawks,  Oneidas, 
Onondagas,  and  Senecas,  were  banded  together  in  a  con 
federation  known  as  the  Five  Nations,  and,  after  being 
joined  by  the  Tuscaroras  in  1714,  were  called  the  Six  Na 
tions.  In  addition  to  these  the  Fries,  Hurons,  Cherokees, 
and  a  few  other  tribes  belonged  to  the  Iroquois. 

By  far  the  greatest  Indian  family  in  North  America, 
measured  by  the  extent  of  territory  occupied,  was  the 
Algonquin  family.  They  surrounded  the  Iroquois  on  all 

1  The  pupil  should  not  attempt  to  commit  the  names  of  all  the  tribes. 


A  TYPICAL  INDIAN  FACE 


NATIONS   AND   TRIBES  33 

sides,  extending  from  Labrador  westward  through  British 
America  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  south 
ward  to  South  Carolina.  They  also  extended  westward 
through  the  Mississippi  Valley  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  most  important  tribes  of  the  Algonquins  were  the 
Massachuset,  Mohegan,  Sac  and  Fox,  Ojibwa,  Blackfoot, 
Shawnee,  Miami,  Illinois,  and  Lenni  Lenape.  Most  of  the 
famous  Indians  of  our  history,  as  King  Philip,  Pocahontas, 
Pontiac,  and  Tecumseh  were  Algonquins.  This  nation  com 
pared  favorably  with  the  Iroquois  in  every  way.  Both  had 
advanced  above  the  state  of  barbarism  and  showed  an 
interesting  incipient  civilization.  Their  highest  accom 
plishments  were  the  raising  of  corn  and  the  making  of 
pottery.  There  are  at  present  nearly  one  hundred  thousand 
Algonquins  and  about  forty  thousand  Iroquois  living  on 
various  reservations.  Many  of  them  are  self-supporting, 
living  mostly  by  agriculture ;  but  in  general  civilization 
they  have  not  advanced  greatly  beyond  the  state  in  which 
they  were  first  discovered. 

The  Athabascans  were  another  great  family,  which  ex 
tended  from  the  Arctic  regions  to  Mexico,  mostly  west  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  They  were  divided  into  many 
tribes,  including  the  warlike  Apaches,  the  Atna  and  Kuchin 
of  Alaska,  the  Navajos  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  the 
Beavers  and  Slaves  of  British  America.  The  Dakota 
or  Sioux  family  occupied  that  portion  of  the  United  States 
west  of  the  Great  Lakes  about  the  head  waters  of  the 
Mississippi,  the  Yellowstone  Valley,  and  the  adjacent 
portions  of  British  America.  Among  them  we  find  the 
Crows,  Assiniboines,  lowas,  Mandans,  Omahas,  Osages, 
and  Winnebagoes ;  about  forty-five  thousand  of  them  still 
exist. 

The  Muskogi  family  were  among  the  most  civilized  and 


34        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

industrious  of  Indians.  They  built  good  houses  and  culti 
vated  the  soil.  The  leading  tribes  were  the  Creeks, 
Chickasaws,  Choctaws,  and  Seminoles,  occupying  for  the 
most  part  the  southern  portions  of  the  United  States. 

The  Shoshone  family  included  the  semicivilized  Aztecs 
of  Mexico,  the  Comanches,  the  Snakes,  the  Utes,  the 
Mokis,  and  many  other  tribes. 


NOTE 

The  Mound  Builders.  —  In  various  parts  of  the  country,  especially  in  the  Ohio 
Valley,  are  found  curious  mounds,  embankments  of  earth  and  stone,  that  repre 
sent  a  prehistoric  age.  It  was  long  believed  that  these  were  made  by  a  race  of 
"  Mound  Builders,"  who  inhabited  the  country  before  the  Indians.  It  is  now  be 
lieved  by  careful  students  of  the  subject  that  the  mounds  were  built  in  a  remote  age 
by  various  Indian  tribes,  and  that  the  race  of  "  Mound  Builders  "  is  mythical. 
The  mounds,  more  than  twelve  thousand  of  which  are  found  in  Ohio  alone,  are  in 
the  shape  of  cones,  pyramids,  circles,  or  of  some  wild  animal.  Some  of  them  are 
small  ;  others  are  several  miles  in  extent.  Their  uses  no  doubt  were  various. 
Some  of  them  seem  to  have  been  forts,  others  were  burial  places  or  were  designed 
for  religious  purposes.  Within  them  have  been  found  human  skeletons  and  various 
kinds  of  rude  implements  of  war  or  of  domestic  use.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
of  these  mounds  is  the  Serpent  Mound  in  Adams  County,  Ohio.  It  represents  the 
figure  of  a  gigantic  serpent,  twelve  hundred  feet  long,  with  wide-open  mouth,  and 
in  the  act  of  swallowing  an  oval  figure  that  resembles  an  egg. 

REFERENCES 

Brinton,  "  Myths  of  the  New  World"  ;  Dodge,  "Our  Wild  Indians"  ; 
Ellis,  "  The  Red  Man  and  the  White  Man  " ;  Helen  Hunt  Jackson,  "  A 
Century  of  Dishonor." 


CHAPTER  III 
COLONIZATION ;  THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES 

THE  new  world  had  been  discovered  a  hundred  years 
and  more  before  any  permanent  colony  of  importance  was 
planted  by  white  men  on  the  soil  of  the  United  States. 
North  America  presented  wonderful  opportunities  for 
future  development  —  millions  of  square  miles  of  fertile 
soil,  unlimited  forests  of  valuable  timbers,  and  a  mineral 
wealth  beneath  the  surface  that  would  require  centuries 
to  unfold.  It  was  only  through  colonization  that  this  vast 
and  beautiful  land  could  become  useful  to  mankind.  The 
time  was  now  ripe  for  such  a  movement  to  begin,  and  the 
question  was,  Which  of  the  European  nations  will  become 
the  mother  of  civilization  in  North  America  ? 

The  chances  all  seemed  to  favor  Spain.  Spain  had 
taken  possession  of  Central  America  and  South  America,1 
and  she  laid  claim  to  the  whole  of  North  America.  At 
the  opening  of  the  seventeenth  century  Spain  was  the 
richest  nation  of  the  world.  Mexican  and  Peruvian  gold 
had  poured  into  Spanish  coffers  in  uncounted  millions,  and 

1  Except  the  eastern  portion  which  belonged  to  Portugal.  The  Spanish 
claims  on  North  America  were  based  on  the  right  of  discovery,  on  the  explo 
rations  of  De  Soto,  Coronado,  and  others,  and  on  a  decree  made  by  the  Pope 
in  1493  giving  all  the  land  west  of  a  line  three  hundred  and  seventy  leagues 
west  of  the  Azores  and  Cape  Verde  Islands  to  Spain,  and  all  east  of  that 
line  to  Portugal.  This  is  known  as  the  "  Line  of  Demarcation."  England 
claimed  North  America  on  the  ground  of  the  Cabot  discoveries,  while  the 
French  claims,  coming  later,  were  based  on  extensive  French  explorations 
to  be  noticed  hereafter. 

35 


36        SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

owing  to  her  mad  search  for  gold,  Spain  was  ill-fitted  to 
build  colonies  and  advance  civilization. 

Both  England  and  France  disputed  the  right  of  Spain 
to  North  America,  but  both  had  long  been  rent  with 
internal  struggles  and  religious  wars  and  for  many  years 
they  had  given  little  attention  to  the  new  lands  beyond 
the  sea.  At  length  the  long  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
(1558—1603)  brought  internal  peace  to  England  and  raised 
the  nation  to  a  first-class  power.  England  then  stood 
forth  to  dispute  with  Spain  her  dominion  of  the  seas  and 
her  extravagant  claims  to  North  America. 

Spain  then  made  a  mighty  effort  to  crush  the  daring 
Briton.  Philip  II  sent  forth  the  ''Invincible  "  Armada.  It 
consisted  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  ships  bearing  thirty 
thousand  men  and  three  thousand  heavy  guns.  In  a 
grand  crescent,  seven  miles  in  extent,  the  Armada  ap 
proached  the  British  Isles  in  the  summer  of  158$.  The 
English  rose  to  the  occasion.  They  raised  a  great  army, 
and  in  a  series  of  battles  the  Spanish  fleet  was  disabled. 
Many  of  the  ships  were  destroyed,  thousands  of  the  sol 
diers  perished,  and  never  since  then  has  Spain  regained  her 
prestige  on  the  sea.  The  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada 
weakened  Spain  and  opened  the  way  for  English  colo 
nization  in  America. 

EARLY  ATTEMPTS  AT  SETTLEMENT 

French  and  Spanish  Colonies.  —  Coligny,  the  great 
leader  of  the  French  Protestants,  called  Huguenots,  sent 
Jean  Ribaut,  who  founded  a  small  colony  at  Port  Royal 
on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina  (I562).1  Ribaut  sailed 
away  leaving  thirty  men  to  hold  the  country  for  France. 
But  after  a  short,  miserable  experience,  the  men  were 

1  See  note,  p.  55. 


FRENCH   AND    SPANISH    COLONIES 


37 


picked  up  by  an  English  vessel  and  carried  to  England.1 
Two  years  after  the  settlement  at  Port  Royal  was  made,  a 
French  colony  was  founded  on  the  St.  John's  River  in 
Florida,  and  was  called  Fort  Caroline,  after  King  Charles 
IX  of  France.2 

The  next  year  (1565)  the  king  of  Spain  sent  Pedro 
Menendez  to  found  a  colony  in  Florida  and  to  drive  out 
the  French.  Menendez  founded  St.  Augustine,  the  oldest 
town  in  the  United  States,  and  the  same  year  he  proceeded 


ST.  AUGUSTINE 

to  Fort  Caroline,  and  massacred  almost  all  the   French 
settlers. 

A  fearful  retribution  awaited  the  Spaniards  for  this 
act  of  cruelty.  De  Gourgues,  a  wealthy  Frenchman, 
sailed  to  Florida,  in  1 568,  to  avenge  his  countrymen.  He 
fell  on  three  Spanish  forts  near  St.  Augustine,  and  slew 
every  man  in  the  garrisons.  The  French  now  abandoned 

1  The  French  had  attempted,  as  early  as  1540,  to   found  a  colony  on   the 
St.  Lawrence;   but  this  effort  had  also  resulted  in  failure. 

2  Caroline  or  Carolina  is  from  Carolus,  the  Latin  for  Charles. 


38         SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

Florida  to  Spain.  In  1582  the  Spaniards  founded  Santa 
Fe,  New  Mexico,  which  is  the  second  oldest  town  in  our 
country.  These  two  settlements,  at  St.  Augustine  and 
Santa  Fe,  were  the  only  white  settlements  at  this  time  in 
the  territory  of  the  United  States. 

English  Attempts  at  Settlements.  —  Even  before  the 
defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  the  English  had  made 

attempts  at  planting 
colonies  in  America. 
The  first  to  do  this  was 
Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert. 
Receiving  a  charter,  that 
is,  a  written  permission, 
from  Queen  Elizabeth, 
he  sailed  with  a  band 
of  colonists  for  New 
foundland.  The  at 
tempt  proved  a  failure  ; 
Gilbert  lost  his  life 
by  shipwreck,  and  his 
mantle  fell  on-  the 
shoulders  of  his  famous 

half-brother,  Sir  Walter 
SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH 

Raleigh. 

Raleigh  was  one  of  the  leading  men  of  his  times,  a 
scholar  and  a  statesman,  a  navigator  and  a  soldier.  He 
was  a  great  favorite  with  England's  queen  and  she  granted 
him  a  charter  to  found  a  colony  in  America,  similar  to 
that  of  Gilbert.  In  1584  Raleigh  sent  two  vessels  to  ex 
plore  the  coast  of  North  America.  They  landed  at  Roa- 
noke  Island,  North  Carolina.  The  explorers  found  the 
natives  gentle  and  kind,  and  the  climate  delightful.  Re 
turning  to  England,  they  gave  a  glowing  report  of  the 


ENGLISH   ATTEMPTS   AT    SETTLEMENTS  39 

enchanting  land  they  had  visited.  At  this  time  the  name 
"Virginia"  was  given  to  the  new  lands,  in  honor  of  Eliza 
beth,  the  virgin  queen.  This  name  was  first  used  to  desig 
nate  all  the  eastern  portion  of  the  present  United  States, 
except  Florida. 

Raleigh  now  determined  to  plant  a  colony  in  Virginia. 
In  1585  he  sent  Ralph  Lane  with  one  hundred  and  eight 
men,  who  settled  on  Roanoke  Island.  But  after  a  year 
of  hardship  they  were  carried  back  to  England  by  Sir 
Francis  Drake,  who  stopped  at  Roanoke  on  one  of  his 
voyages.  They  brought  back  with  them  tobacco  and  the 
potato  and  introduced  their  use  in  England. 

Raleigh  was  disappointed,  but  not  discouraged.  In 
1587  he  sent  a  colony  of  one  hundred  and  fifty,  seventeen 
of  whom  were  women,  under  John  White.  Soon  after  they 
landed  at  Roanoke  Virginia  Dare  was  born.  She  was  a 
grandchild  of  Governor  White  and  was  the  first  English 
child  born  on  the  soil  of  the  United  States.  Governor 
White  went  back  to  England,  intending  to  return  soon  to 
his  colony ;  but  a  war  with  Spain  and  the  coming  of  the 
Armada  prevented  his  return,  and  three  years  passed 
before  another  English  vessel  reached  Roanoke.  Then  it 
was  too  late,  for  when  at  last  help  came,  the  colony  had 
disappeared.  Not  a  trace  of  it  was  ever  found.1  It  has 
been  called  "  The  lost  colony  of  Roanoke."  Though 
Raleigh  was  not  successful  in  colony  planting,  he  awak 
ened  a  great  interest  in  the  subject  in  England,  and  did 
more  than  any  other  man  except  John  Cabot  to  secure 
North  America  to  the  English  race.2 

1  Except  the  word  "  Croatan  "  carved  on  the  bark  of  a  tree.  This  was  the 
name  of  a  near-by  island.  Many  years  later  children  with  light  hair  were 
found  among  the  Indians.  It  was  believed  that  they  were  the  descendants 
of  members  of  the  lost  colony,  adopted  by  the  Indians. 

a  See  note  on  Raleigh,  p.  65. 


40        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


VIRGINIA,  1607 

First    Permanent    Settlement;    London    and    Plymouth 
Companies.  —  The  first  permanent  English   settlement  in 


RETURN  OF  GOVERNOR  WHITE  TO  ROANOKE  ISLAND 

America  was  Virginia,  settled  in  1607.  Before  this  the 
attempts  at  settlement  had  been  made  by  individuals; 
now  an  attempt  was  made  by  a  company,  a  collection  of 
individuals. 


FOUNDING   OF  JAMESTOWN 

In  1606  King  James  I,  the  successor  of  Elizabeth, 
chartered  two  companies  —  the  London  and  Plymouth 
companies.  Each  was  granted  the  right  to  found  a  col 
ony  which  was  to  be  governed  by  a  council  appointed  by 
the  king.  Each  was  given  a  block  of  land  one  hundred 
miles  square  on  the  Atlantic  coast  in  North  America, 
and  the  settlements  were  to  be  at  least  one  hundred 
miles  apart.  The  Plymouth  Company  made  an  attempt 
to  found  a  colony  on  the  coast  of  Maine,  but  it  was 
not  successful.  It  was  the  London  Company  that  settled 
Virginia.  We  now  use  the  word  "Virginia"  in  its 
narrower  sense,  and  not  to  designate  the  whole  coast,  as 
at  first. 

Founding  of  Jamestown.  —  Ln  December,  1606,  a  party 
of  one  hundred  and  five  men  in  three  small  ships  set  out 
on  the  wintry  sea  for  America.  A  famous  sea  captain, 
Christopher  Newport,  commanded  the  largest  vessel,  the. 
Susan  Constant,  of  a  hundred  tons.  In  the  early  spring 
they  reached  Chesapeake  Bay,  and,  entering  one  of  the 
rivers  emptying  into  the  bay,  they  gave  it  the  name  of 
their  king,  and  sailing  up  the  river  some  thirty  miles, 
founded  a  town  and  called  it  after  the  name  of  King  James 
(May  17,  I60;).1 

They  soon  had  a  few  tents  and  cabins  erected  ;  but  some 
found  a  dwelling  place  by  burrowing  into  the  ground. 
For  a  church  they  stretched  a  piece  of  canvas  between 
two  trees,  and  beneath  this  canvas  the  Rev.  Robert  Hunt 

1  Other  unsuccessful  attempts  to  colonize  the  coast  were  as  follows  :  In 
1602  Bartholomew  Gosnold,  one  of  Raleigh's  captains,  sailed  to  Cape  Cod 
and  Buzzards  Bay,  intending  to  found  a  colony,  but  failed  to  do  so.  In  1603 
Martin  Pring  made  a  voyage  to  New  England  ;  in  the  same  year  a  son  of 
Humphrey  Gilbert  sailed  to  Chesapeake  Bay  and  was  killed  by  the  Indians. 
In  1605  Captain  Weymouth  made  a  voyage  to  the  Kennebec  River  and 
returned  with  five  Indians. 


42         SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

conducted  divine  service.  The  men  who  founded  James 
town  were  ill  fitted  for  the  business  of  colony  building. 
A  few  were  laborers  and  tradesmen,  but  more  than  fifty 
were  "gentlemen,"  as  they  said;  that  is,  men  of  no  occu 
pation,  men  who  did  not  realize  that  years  of  hard  work 
would  be  required  to  make  their  settlement  successful. 


RUINS  OF  JAMESTOWN 

There  was   not   a  farmer   among   them.     Many   brought 
pickaxes,  expecting  to  find  gold. 

The  colony  was  soon  in  a  pitiable  condition.  The  men 
were  in  constant  fear  of  the  Indians ;  they  were  attacked 
by  fevers,  and  their  rations  ran  so  low  that  each  man  re 
ceived  only  a  pint  of  worm-eaten  barley  a  day.  Some- 


JOHN    SMITH 


43 


times  three  or  four  died  in  a  single  night  and  before  the 
end  of  September  half  the  little  colony  had  found  a  grave 
in  the  wilderness.  Captain  Newport  had  returned  to  Eng 
land,  and  no  doubt  the  whole  colony  would  have  perished 
but  for  the  energy  of  one  man  —  John  Smith. 

John  Smith.  —  One  of  the  most  notable  characters  of 
colonial  America  was  John  Smith,  who  came  as  one 
of  the  first  settlers  at 
Jamestown.  Smith  had, 
according  to  his  own. 
story,  a  record  of  adven 
ture  that  was  remark 
able.  Though  a  young 
man  of  twenty-seven 
when  he  reached  Virginia, 
his  life  had  been  full  of 
adventure  and  romance; 
yet  it  remained  for  his 
sojourn  in  the  American 
wilderness  to  furnish  the 
crowning  romance  of  his 
life.1 

Pocahontas.  —  One  day 
as  John  Smith  was  explor 
ing  the  forest  he  was  cap 
tured  by  the  Indians. 
He  was  condemned  to  be  put  to  death,  and  his  head 
was  laid  on  the  block,  when  an  Indian  girl  named  Poca 
hontas,  daughter  of  the  chief,  rushed  forward  and  begged 
that  his  life  be  spared.  Her  request  was  granted  and 
Smith  was  permitted  to  return  to  his  people.  Some  doubt 
this  story.  But  such  occurrences  were  not  uncommon 

1  See  note  on  John  Smith,  p.  66. 


CAPTAIN  JOHN  SMITH 


44         SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

among  the  Indians,  and  there  is.  reason  to  believe  that 
the  story  is  true. 

After  this,  Pocahontas  often  came  to  Jamestown  and 
after  she  grew  to  womanhood  she  married  one  of  the 
colonists  —  John  Rolfe,  a  widower.  She  accompanied  her 
husband  to  England  and  was  received  with  great  favor. 
She  died  in  England  after  giving  birth  to  a  son,  who  after 
ward  made  Virginia  his  home. 

Starving  Time;  Lord  Delaware. — John  Smith  soon  be 
came  governor  of  the  colony.  He  put  the  men  to  work; 
he  traded  with  the  Indians  for  corn  ;  he  saved  the  men 
from  starvation.  Other  colonists  had  come,  and  in  1609, 
when  Smith  returned  to  England,  there  were  five  hun 
dred.  Again  the  colony  was  to  pass  through  a  dreadful 
experience.  The  Indians  were  again  hostile,  and  would 
sell  them  no  more  corn.  The  "  starving  time "  came. 
Men  wandered  about  with  blanched  faces,  actually  dy 
ing  for  food.  So  frightful  was  the  death  rate  that,  of 
the  five  hundred  left  by  Smith  in  the  autumn,  but  sixty 
remained  alive  in  the  spring.  Lord  Delaware  had  been 
appointed  governor  of  Virginia  and  had  embarked  from 
England  with  nine  ships.  He  was  delayed  many  months 
by  storms.  Meantime  the  few  colonists  who  were  yet 
alive  decided  to  sail  for  England  in  the  few  little  boats 
which  they  had.  Down  the  James  they  sailed  with  sad 
hearts.  But  before  they  put  out  to  sea  they  met  the  fleet 
of  Lord  Delaware,  who  had  at  last  come  to  the  rescue  of 
Virginia. 

He  picked  up  the  forlorn  Virginians,  and  together  they 
returned  to  Jamestown  to  begin  all  over  again.  Delaware 
returned  to  England  the  next  year  and  Sir  Thomas  Dale 
was  made  governor.  Dale  was  a  good  bat  very  strict 
governor.  He  remained  five  years  and  put  the  colony  on 


TOBACCO 


45 


its  feet.  Never  after  this  was  Jamestown  in  want  for  food. 
Before  the  coming  of  Governor  Dale  the  men  had  all 
worked  in  common  for  the  company,  and  the  industrious 
had  no  advantage  over  the  idle.  But  Dale  changed  this 
by  giving  each  man  a  plot  of  three  acres  on  which  he 


LORD  DELAWARE'S  SHIPS  MEETING  THE  COLONISTS 


The 


might  work    for    himself    a    portion   of    each   year, 
change  proved  to  be  a  very  beneficial  one. 

Tobacco.  —  Tobacco  was  an  American  plant  and  though 
unknown  in  Europe  before  the  discovery  of  America,  its 
use  had  spread  to  nearly  all  countries  by  the  time  that 
Jamestown  was  settled.  In  England  it  was  considered 
not  only  a  luxury,  but  also  a  cure  for  many  ills,  and  both 
men  and  women  were  eager  to  smoke  tobacco. 


46        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

In  1712  John  Rolfe,  who  afterward  married  Pocahontas, 
began  to  cultivate  tobacco  in  Virginia.  The  other  planters 
soon  followed  his  example,  and  as  tobacco  found  a  ready 
sale  in  England,  it  became  the  chief  product  of  export 
from  Virginia.  Everybody  raised  tobacco ;  it  was  even 
grown  in  the  streets  of  Jamestown,  and  by  law  it  was  made 
the  money  of  the  colony.  All  public  officers  and  ministers 
were  paid  their  salaries  in  tobacco.  In  a  few  years  the 
raising  of  the  weed  became  so  popular  that  the  people 
neglected  to  raise  grain.  A  law  was  then  passed  to  com 
pel  the  planters  to  raise  corn  as  well  as  tobacco.  In  the 
years  that  followed  thousands  of  immigrants  came  to  Vir 
ginia  for  the  purpose  of  growing  tobacco,  and  it  was  this 
industry  that  insured  the  success  of  the  colony. 

The  Burgesses;  Slaves,  1619.  —  Sir  George  Yeardley 
became  governor  of  Virginia  in  1619,  and  was  one  of 
the  best  governors  the  colony  ever  had.  A  new  charter 
had  been  granted  the  London  Company  (which  came  to 
be  called  the  Virginia  Company)  in  1609,  greatly  enlarging 
the  boundaries  of  the  colony.  A  third  charter  was  granted 
in  1612.  By  this  charter  the  company  was  given  the  sole 
power  of  governing  the  colony,  and  of  extending  this 
power  to  the  colonists  themselves.  In  1619  this  power 
was  granted  the  people,  and  they  elected  twenty-two  men 
to  form  a  legislature.  The  body  was  known  as  the  House 
of  Burgesses.  Before  this  the  people  had  no  part  in  their 
own  government ;  but  now  they  were  soon  living  under 
laws  of  their  own  making.  This  was  the  beginning  of  self- 
government  in  America,  and  the  principle  has  expanded 
until  we  are  the  greatest  self-governing  people  in  history. 

This  same  year  (1619)  witnessed  the  beginning  of 
another  institution  —  slavery.  In  that  year  a  Dutch  ves 
sel  came  up  the  James  with  twenty  African  negroes,  who 


INDIAN   MASSACRES  47 

were  sold  into  slavery  to  the  colonists.  Thus  began  an 
institution  which  was  to  increase,  and,  many  years  later, 
to  cause  great  misery  and  suffering,  and  to  bring  about 
bloodshed  and  civil  war. 

Still  another  event  makes  the  year  of  1619  memorable 
in  Virginia  history.  This  was  the  coming  of  ninety  young 
women  from  England  to  become  wives  of  the  planters. 
Before  this  there  were  few  women  and  children  in  Vir 
ginia.  No  nation  can  become  great  unless  it  is  founded 
on  family  life;  and  what  is  home  without  women  and 
children?  The  bachelor  farmers  were  glad  to  have  the 
opportunity  to  begin  family  life.  In  order  to  get  one  of 
these  prizes  the  farmer  had  to  win  her  consent,  and  to  pay 
her  passage  across  the  sea  —  one  hundred  and  twenty 
pounds  of  tobacco.  Other  women  came  from  time  to  time, 
and  family  life  in  Virginia  became  firmly  established.  To 
the  sounds  of  the  woodman's  ax,  and  the  builder's  ham 
mer,  to  the  lowing  of  the  herds,  and  the  chattering  of  the 
fowls  were  added  the  shouts  of  playing  children,  and  forest 
life  henceforth  had  its  joys  as  well  as  its  misfortunes. 

Indian  Massacres. — The  greatest  misfortune  that  ever 
befell  colonial  Virginia  was  the  Indian  massacre  of  1622. 
After  the  marriage  of  Pocahontas  there  was  peace  between 
the  two  races  as  long  as  her  father,  Powhatan,  the  chief, 
lived.  But  on  his  death  his  brother,  who  hated  the  whites, 
became  the  chief  of  the  tribe.  In  1622  he  and  his  war 
riors  fell  upon  the  colonists,  and  before  they  could  be 
stopped  three  hundred  and  forty-seven  of  the  settlers 
were  killed.  Twenty-two  years  after  this  (1644)  the  same 
chief,  now  an  aged  man,  instituted  another  massacre,  and 
over  two  hundred  whites  were  killed.  At  this  time  the 
chief  was  taken  captive,  and  was  soon  after  slain  by  one  of 
his  own  people. 


48         SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

Virginia  becomes  a  Royal  Colony,  1624. — A  royal 
colony  was  one  that  was  directly  under  the  care  of  the  king, 
and  not  of  a  company  or  proprietor.  King  James  was  not 
pleased  with  the  company's  management  of  Virginia.  He, 
therefore,  revoked  the  charter,  and  made  Virginia  a  royal 
colony.  So  it  remained  to  the  War  of  the  Revolution. 
The  king  appointed  the  governor,  and  the  people  con 
tinued  to  elect  the  burgesses.  The  people  thus  continued 
to  make  the  laws,  and  the  king  reserved  the  right  to  veto 
them,  but  seldom  did  so. 

Sir  William  Berkeley.  —  The  longest  rule  of  one  man 
in  the  history  of  the  thirteen  colonies  was  that  of  Sir 
William  Berkeley,  who  was  governor  of  Virginia  from  1642 
to  1677,  with  the  exception  of  an  interval  of  a  few  years. 
Berkeley  was  a  rough  man,  with  a  hot  temper  and  a  nar 
row  mind. 

About  the  time  he  became  governor  a  fierce  religious 
war  broke  out  in  England.  King  Charles  I  was  at  the 
head  of  the  High  Church  party,  who  were  called  Cavaliers. 
The  other  party  was  composed  of  Puritans,  who  were 
called  Roundheads,  from  the  way  in  which  they  cut  their 
hair.  The  Puritan  party  was  led  by  Oliver  Cromwell.  It 
gained  a  complete  victory  aver  the  Cavalier  party,  and  in 
1649  King  Charles  was  beheaded.  Berkeley  took  the  side 
of  the  king  in  the  English  war,  and  when  the  other  party 
triumphed,  he  ceased  to  be  governor,  and  Virginia  was  left 
to  govern  itself  for  several  years. 

The  English  war  had  one  important  permanent  effect 
on  Virginia.  It  caused  many  of  the  Cavaliers,  after  being 
defeated  by  the  Puritans,  to  migrate  to  Virginia.  Among 
these  new  immigrants  were  the  ancestors  of  George  Wash 
ington,  of  James  Madison,  of  James  Monroe,  of  John  Mar 
shall,  and  of  many  of  the  "  First  Families  of  Virginia." 


THE    RESTORATION  49 

The  Restoration,  1660.  —  Oliver  Cromwell,  under  the  title 
of  Lord  Protector,  was  master  of  England  for  some  years, 
known  as  the  period  of  the  Commonwealth.  But  soon 
after  his  death  Charles  II  became  king.  This  is  known  as 
the  Restoration.  There  was  also  a  restoration  in  Virginia. 
Berkeley  was  restored  to  the  governorship.  The  cross  old 
governor  now  became  more  tyrannical  than  ever.  He  had 
little  respect  for  the  people,  and  he  refused  for  fifteen  years 
to  permit  them  to  elect  a  new  house  of  burgesses.  He  was 
an  enemy  to  free  schools,  because  he  believed  that  educa 
tion  made  the  people  more  independent.  In  1671  he  wrote 
to  his  superiors  in  England,  "  I  thank  God  there  are  no  free 
schools  nor  printing,  and  I  hope  we  shall  not  have  these 
hundred  years." 

Berkeley  was  not  only  a  tyrant,  he  was  dishonest  and 
enriched  himself  fraudulently  through  the  Indian  fur 
trade.  But  at  length  he  came  to  grief. 

Bacon's  Rebellion.  —  When  the  Indians  became  hostile, 
Berkeley  refused  to  protect  the  white  people  for  fear  that 
the  fur  trade  .would  be  disturbed.  The  people  there 
upon  chose  Nathaniel  Bacon,  an  eloquent  young  lawyer,  to 
lead  them  against  the  Indians.  The  governor  was  so 
incensed  at  this  that  he  started  with  troops  in  pursuit  of 
Bacon  and  his  men.  The  people  then  rose  in  large  num 
bers  against  Berkeley  and  he  hastened  back  to  Jamestown 
to  placate  them.  This  he  could  do  only  by  permitting  a 
new  election  of  the  burgesses,  which  he  did.  Bacon  was 
elected  as  one  of  the  burgesses,  who  then  passed  a  series 
of  laws  known  as  Bacon's  laws. 

The  governor  again  became  angry  and  pronounced 
Bacon  a  traitor.  Bacon  then  raised  another  army,  marched 
upon  Jamestown,  and  burned  it  to  the  ground.  The  irate 
old  governor,  pointing  to  his  breast,  shouted  to  Bacon, 

E 


50         SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


"  Shoot  me,  shoot  me."     But  Bacon  did  not  wish  to  shoot 
him ;  he  wished  only  to  gain  more  liberty  for  the  people 

of  Virginia.  This 
rebellion  took  place 
in  1676,  just  one 
hundred  years  be 
fore  the  Revolu 
tion. 

It  was  not  long, 
however,  till  Bacon 
died  of  swamp  fever, 
and  Berkeley  was 
again  master  of  Vir 
ginia.  He  hanged 
about  twenty  of 
Bacon's  followers. 
So  cruel  was  he 
that  King  Charles 
was  displeased  and 
recalled  him  to  Eng 
land.1  Here  Berke 
ley  died  soon  after 
ward,  of  a  broken 
heart,  it  was  said, 
because  the  king 
refused  to  see  him. 
Bacon's  Rebellion 


THE  QUARREL  BETWEEN  BERKELEY  AND  BACON 


Development  of  Virginia.  —  After 
Virginia  was  to  remain  a  royal  colony  for  a  hundred  years. 
During  this  period  it  prospered  greatly,  in  spite  of  several 
worthless  governors.  By  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  cen 
tury  one  hundred  thousand  people  had  made  their  homes 

1  "  The  old  fool  has  taken  more  lives  in  that  naked  country  than  I  have 
taken  for  the  murder  of  my  father,"  said  Charles. 


GEORGE  AND   CECIL   CALVERT  51 

in  Virginia.  These  were  nearly  all  English;  but  in  1700 
several  hundred  Huguenots,  or  French  Protestants,  came 
to  the  colony.  About  1730  the  Scotch-Irish  began  to 
settle  in  large  numbers  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  and 
soon  after  this  the  Germans  came.  The  frontier  was 
moved  back  until  it  had  crossed  the  Alleghanies.  Thus 
the  various  nationalities,  blending  slowly  into  one  people, 
spent  the  remainder  of  the  colonial  period  hewing  away 
the  forest  and  laying  the  foundations  of  a  great  state. 

MARYLAND,  1634 

Maryland  was  not  the  second  of  the  thirteen  original 
colonies  to  be  founded,  but  it  was  the  second  of  the  south 
ern  group,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  given  here.  For 
two  reasons  Maryland  is  remembered  among  her  sisters. 
It  was  the  first  of  the  proprietary  colonies  and  it  was  the 
first  to  grant  religious  freedom. 

The  experiments  of  Gilbert  and  Raleigh  in  colony 
building  were  individual  experiments ;  the  founding  of 
Virginia  was  by  a  company.  In  Maryland  we  have  the 
first  proprietary  colony ;  that  is,  a  colony  governed  and 
practically  owned  by  a  lord  proprietor. 

George  and  Cecil  Calvert.  —  The  father  of  Maryland 
was  George  Calvert ;  the  actual  founder  was  his  son,  Cecil 
Calvert.  George  Calvert  was  a  prominent  Roman  Catho 
lic  of  England,  a  man  of  broad  sympathies  and  stanch 
character.  The  king  raised  him  to  a  peerage  with  the 
title  of  Lord  Baltimore.  As  the  Catholic  people  were  at 
this  time  the  objects  of  persecution  in  England,  Baltimore 
determined  to  found  a  colony  for  them  in  America.  First 
he  took  a  band  of  settlers  to  Newfoundland  ;  but  the 
climate  proving  too  severe,  he  proceeded  to  Virginia. 


SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 


The  Virginians,  however,  were  intolerant  of  Catholics  and 
Baltimore  returned  to  England. 

King  Charles  then  granted  him  a  large  tract  north  of 
Virginia  and  named  it  Maryland  in  honor  of  his  wife 

Henrietta  Maria. 
The  new  colony 
was  bounded  on 
the  south  by  the 
Potomac  River, 
on  the  north  by 
the  fortieth  par 
allel,  and  it  ex 
tended  from  the 
Atlantic  Ocean 
westward  to  the 
source  of  the 
Potomac.  This 
included  the 
present  state  of 
Delaware  and 
portions  of  Penn- 
sylvania  and 
West  Virginia. 
The  charter 

required  that  the  proprietor  send  two  Indian  arrows  to  the 
king  each  year,  as  a  token  of  allegiance,  and  if  any  gold 
and  silver  were  mined  in  the  colony,  one  fifth  of  it  was  to 
be  sent  to  the  king. 

The  power  granted  the  proprietor  was  almost  kingly. 
He  could  coin  money,  establish  courts,  wage  war,  and 
grant  titles  of  nobility ;  but  he  could  not  tax  the  people 
without  their  consent.  George  Calvert  died  before  he 
could  carry  his  project  into  execution.  The  charter  was 


LORD  BALTIMORE 


FIRST   SETTLEMENT   IN    MARYLAND  53 

then  granted  to  his  son  Cecil,  who  proceeded  to  carry  out 
his  father's  plan. 

The  First  Settlement.  —  The  first  settlers,  about  three 
hundred  in  number,  reached  an  island  in  the  mouth  of 
the  Potomac  in  March,  1634.  They  purchased  the  land  of 
the  Indians,  paying  them  in  axes,  hoes,  and  cloth.  On  this 
island  they  founded  a  town  and  named  it  St.  Mary's.  In 
six  months  the  colony  had  made  more  progress  than 
Virginia  had  made  in  as  many  years  after  its  founding. 
The  first  governor  of  Maryland  was  Leonard  Calvert,  a 
brother  of  the  proprietor. 

William  Claiborne.  —  For  many  years  after  the  found 
ing  of  Maryland  there  was  an  unfriendly  feeling  between 
that  colony  and  Virginia.  At  length  it  broke  into  open 
warfare  with  William  Claiborne  as  the  chief  figure. 
Claiborne,  a  Virginian,  had  established  a  trading  post  on 
Kent  Island  in  the  Chesapeake,  and  this  island  was 
included  in  the  charter  of  Maryland.  Claiborne  now 
refused  to  come  under  the  control  of  Maryland  and  for 
more  than  ten  years  there  was  strife.  Many  men  were 
killed  in  the  frequent  skirmishes  between  the  contending 
parties.  At  length  Maryland  gained  permanent  control  of 
Kent  Island. 

Religious  Toleration,  1649.  —  The  Calverts  were  Catho 
lics,  and  one  of  their  objects  in  founding  a  colony  was 
to  furnish  an  asylum  for  Catholics  oppressed  in  England. 
They  also  admitted  Protestants  into  Maryland,  and  even  of 
the  first  settlers  many  were  Protestants.  In  practice  the 
people  enjoyed  religious  freedom,  though  there  was  no  law 
to  guarantee  this  freedom  before  1649. 

In  that  year  the  Toleration  Act  was  passed.  By  this 
law  all  Christian  sects,  except  Unitarians,  were  guaranteed 
freedom  to  worship  God  in  their  own  way  in  Maryland. 


54        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

The  act  was  a  very  liberal  one  for  those  days,  but  would 
not  be  considered  liberal  in  our  times.  It  provided  severe 
penalties  for  denying  a  belief  in  the  Trinity,  and  for  other 
causes. 

In  later  years,  however,  Maryland  had  its  full  share  of 
religious  strife.  Many  Puritans,  driven  from  Virginia  by 
the  tyranny  of  Berkeley,  came  to  Maryland.  At  length 
they  gained  control  of  Maryland,  when  they  passed  a  law 
against  the  Catholics  ;  but  later  the  Toleration  Act  was 
again  put  in  force. 

Government  of  Maryland.  —  A  short  time  after  Mary 
land  was  founded  the  people  were  making  their  own  laws. 
The  charter  gave  the  proprietor  a  great  deal  of  power ;  but 
as  he  could  not  tax  them  without  their  consent  they  were 
soon  in  position  to  demand  of  him  almost  anything  they 
wanted.  Their  one  weapon  was  a  withholding  of  supplies 
and  that  was  usually  effective.  The  population  increased 
rapidly.  The  Quakers,  the  Dutch,  the  Germans,  and  the 
Huguenots  came  to  join  the  English  in  Maryland,  and  the 
colony  was  prosperous  and  happy. 

In  1691,  when  William  and  Mary  were  the  sovereigns  of 
England,  Maryland  became  a  royal  colony;  but  in  1715  it 
was  restored  to  the  Calvert  family,  where  it  remained  to 
the  time  of  the  Revolution.  The  capital  was  moved  in 
1694  from  St.  Mary's  to  Annapolis.  The  city  of  Baltimore 
was  founded  in  1730. 

NORTH   CAROLINA,   1653 

North  Carolina  came  near  being  the  first  of  the  perma 
nent  English  colonies.  The  lost  colony  of  Roanoke  and 
the  other  temporary  colonies  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  had 
settled  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina.  Again,  the  people 


BEGINNINGS   OF   NORTH    CAROLINA  55 

who  founded  Virginia  had  intended  to  settle  in  the  vicinity 
of  Roanoke,  but  a  storm  changed  their  course  and  led 
them  to  the  valley  of  the  James. 

Beginnings  of  North  Carolina.1  —  The  first  settlements  in 
North  Carolina  that  were  destined  to  live  -were  made  in 
1653  by  Virginians  on  the  banks  of  the  Chowan  and 
Roanoke  rivers,  in  a  district  called  Albemarle,  in  honor  of 
the  Duke  of  Albemarle,  one  of  the  proprietors.  A  few 
years  later  a  company  from  New  England  settled  on  the 
Cape  Fear  River.  Most  of  them  soon  abandoned  the 
place,  and  the  remainder  were  joined  by  Sir  John  Yeamans, 
an  English  nobleman  with  broken  fortunes,  with  a  com 
pany  of  planters  from  the  Barbadoes.  This  was  called  the 
Clarendon  colony,  after  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  one  of  the 
proprietors. 

In  1663  King  Charles  II  granted  a  charter  to  eight  of 
his  favorites  for  the  vast  territory  south  of  Virginia,  and 
two  years  later  this  charter  was  enlarged  to  include  all  the 
territory  between  the  2Qth  parallel  and  the  southern 
boundary  of  Virginia,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  This  grant  embraced  the  greater  part  of  the 
southern  half  of  the  present  United  States. 

The  Grand  Model.  —  One  of  the  eight  men  to  whom  this 
grant  was  made  was  Lord  Ashley  Cooper,  who  became  the 
Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  and  he,  with  the  philosopher  John 
Locke,  drew  up  a  constitution,  known  as  the  Grand  Model, 
for  the  government  of  Carolina. 

This  "  model "  proved  to  be  grand  only  as  a  grand 
failure.  It  provided  for  aristocratic  rule  in  the  extreme. 
It  divided  the  country  into  great  estates  to  be  ruled  by 

1  The  name  Carolina  had  been  given  this  territory  many  years  before  by 
Ribaut  (Ri-bo'),  in  honor  of  Charles  IX  of  France;  it  was  now  retained  in 
honor  of  Charles  II  of  England.  See  note  on  p.  37. 


56         SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF    THE   UNITED    STATES 

earls  and  barons  and  left  the  people  in  a  condition  of  serf 
dom  without  any  of  the  rights  of  self-government.  But 
they  were  used  to  the  unrestrained  freedom  of  the  wilder 
ness.  They  refused  to  be  governed  by  this  model,  and 
thus  the  whole  scheme  proved  a  failure.  The  people  pre 
ferred  to  govern  themselves. 

Growth  of  North  Carolina ;  Indian  War.  —  The  colony 
was  not  prosperous  at  first.  The  Clarendon  settlement 
was  abandoned  and  the  Albemarle  settlement  made  little 
progress.  But  after  1700  new  settlers  came  in  increased 
numbers. 

In  1711  a  terrible  Indian  war  took  place.  Hundreds  of 
the  settlers  fell  victims  of  the  merciless  tomahawk.  But 
in  the  end  the  Indians  were  defeated,  and  the  Tuscarora 
tribe,  which  had  led  in  the  war,  and  whose  ancestors  had 
come  from  New  York,  now  decided  to  abandon  their 
southern  home.  In  1714  this  tribe  joined  the  Iroquois 
in  New  York,  known  before  this  time  as  the  Five  Nations, 
and  afterward  as  the  Six  Nations. 

About  1720  the  Germans  and  Scotch-Irish  began  to 
arrive  in  considerable  numbers,  and  the  settlements  grad 
ually  extended  from  the  seaboard  to  the  mountain  slopes. 
The  chief  products  at  first  were  grain  and  live  stock,  but 
ere  long  the  great  pine  forests  began  to  yield  their  wealth 
and  before  the  Revolution  the  chief  products  of  the  colony 
were  tar,  turpentine,  and  lumber.  Most  of  the  people 
were  moral  and  religious,  but  they  had  little  government 
and  did  not  like  to  pay  taxes.  They  had  no  cities,  scarcely 
villages.  They  lived  apart,  scattered  through  the  wilder 
ness  ;  their  highways  were  the  rivers  and  bays,  and  their 
homes  were  connected  by  the  Indian  trails  winding  among 
the  trees.  Yet  the  people  were  happy  in  their  freedom 
and  contented  with  their  isolation. 


THE   ASHLEY-COOPER    SETTLEMENTS  57 

SOUTH  CAROLINA,   1670 

Carolina  was  the  name  given  the  vast  tract  of  land 
granted  to  the  eight  favorites  of  the  king  in  1663  and  so 
it  was  called  for  many  years.  But  near  the  close  of  that 
century,  after  settlements  had  been  made  several  hundred 
miles  south  of  the  one  at  Albemarle,  the  terms  North 
Carolina  and  South  Carolina  came  into  use.  The  two 
colonies,  however,  were  not  separated  in  government  till 
1729  —  three  quarters  of  a  century  after  the  first  settle 
ment  had  been  made  at  Albemarle. 

The  Ashley-Cooper  Settlements  ;  Charleston.  —  The  Ash 
ley  and  Cooper  rivers,  which  empty  near  together,  received 
their  names  from  Lord  Ashley  Cooper,  one  of  the  propri 
etors  of  Carolina.  The  first  settlers  came  in  1670,  led  by 
William  Sayle,  who  became  the  first  governor.  The  next 
year  they  were  joined  by  Sir  John  Yeamans,  whom  we  have 
met  in  North  Carolina,  and  by  some  Dutch  emigrants  from 
New  York.  Yeamans  brought  with  him  about  two  hun 
dred  African  slaves.  South  Carolina  differs  from  all  the 
rest  of  the  thirteen  colonies  in  the  fact  that  it  depended 
largely  on  slave  labor  from  the  beginning. 

In  1680  the  city  of  Charleston  was  founded,  and  it  grew 
to  be  one  of  the  five  largest  cities  in  colonial  America ; 
the  only  larger  cities  were  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Boston, 
and  Baltimore. 

The  Huguenots  came  to  South  Carolina  about  the  close 
of  the  century.  Though  coldly  received  at  first,  they  soon 
proved  themselves  to  be  worthy  people  and  were  gladly 
welcomed. 

Government ;  Indian  War  ;  Religion.  —  Scarcely  had  the 
first  immigrants  landed  when  they  chose  an  assembly, 
which  began  to  frame  laws  on  the  basis  of  liberty.  The 


SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


proprietors  made 
a  strenuous  effort 
to  introduce  the 
Grand  Model;  but 
the  attempt  was 
futile.  The  peo 
ple  breathed  the 
pure  air  of  liberty, 
and  refused  to  be 
trampled  by  the 
heel  of  tyranny. 

A  distressing 
Indian  war  oc 
curred  in  South 
Carolina  in  1715. 
There  were  vari 
ous  causes  of  the 
war,  one  of  which 
was  that  the  Span 
iards  in  Florida 
stirred  up  the 
Indians  in  the 
hope  of  destroy 
ing  the  English 
settlements.  The 
Indians  were,  as 
usual,  defeated ; 
but  not  until  many 
sturdy,  inoffen 
sive  farmers  had 
perished. 

In  both  North 
Carolina  and  South 


SOUTH   CAROLINA   A  ROYAL   COLONY  59 

Carolina  the  subject  of  religion  caused  a  good  deal  of 
trouble.  The  proprietors  did  everything  in  their  power  to 
have  the  Church  of  England  established  by  law,  though 
a  large  majority  of  the  people  were  Dissenters.  For  the 
most  part  the  proprietors  succeeded,  but  the  Dissenters 
battled  for  their  rights  of  freedom  of  worship  and  their 
share  in  the  government,  and  they  were  sustained  by  the 
British  crown. 

South  Carolina  a  Royal  Colony,  1719;  the  Separation, 
1729.  —  So  exasperating  was  the  government  under  the 
proprietors,  who  sought  only  to  enrich  themselves  by  col 
lecting  rents,  that  the  people  of  South  Carolina  appealed 
to  the  king  to  make  it  a  royal  colony.  The  request  was 
granted  in  1719.  Ten  years  later  (1729)  the  proprietors 
sold  their  interests  to  the  king  and  the  twin  colonies  were 
separated.1  Before  the  separation  the  two  colonies  had 
separate  legislatures ;  but  usually  the  same  governor  ruled 
over  both.  From  the  time  of  separation  to  the  end  of  the 
colonial  era  both  remained  royal  colonies. 

Products  of  South  Carolina;  Population. — About  1693 
a  sea  captain  gave  to  a  South  Carolina  farmer  a  bag  of 
seed  rice  which  he  had  brought  from  Madagascar.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  a  great  industry  in  the  colony.  The 
country  produced  wild  ric.e,  but  this  was  found  to  be  in 
ferior  to  the  domestic  product  brought  from  Madagascar. 

About  fifty  years  after  the  introduction  of  rice,  a  young 
girl  named  Eliza  Lucas  planted  on  her  father's  farm  some 
indigo  seeds  brought  from  the  West  Indies.  So  success 
ful  was  the  experiment  that  indigo  soon  became  a  rival  of 
rice  as  the  chief  product  of  South  Carolina.  The  raising 

1  The  price  paid  was  about  ,£50,000.  One  of  the  proprietors  refused  to  sell 
and  he  was  later  granted  for  his  share  a  strip  of  land  just  south  of  Virginia, 
thirty-six  miles  wide  "  from  sea  to  sea." 


60        SCHOOL    HISTORY    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

of  indigo  was  greatly  stimulated  by  a  bounty  offered  by  the 
British  Parliament  for  all  the  indigo  shipped  from  the  colo 
nies  to  England.  It  was  many  years  later  that  cotton 
became  the  chief  product  of  South  Carolina. 

Rice  and  indigo  grow  best  in  marshy  ground,  and  as  a 
white  man  could  not  long  endure  the  malarial  atmosphere 
of  the  rice  swamps,  slave  labor  was  employed  almost  ex 
clusively.  Even  among  the  blacks  the  death  rate  was 
very  high  and  their  ranks  were  constantly  refilled  from 
Africa. 

In  1715  about  five  hundred  Irish  came  and  occupied  the 
lands  vacated  by  the  Indians.  But  the  back  country  was 
held  by  the  Cherokees  till  1755  when  they  made  a  treaty 
ceding  it  to  the  colonists.  Soon  after  this  a  stream  of 
emigrants  from  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  North  Caro 
lina  poured  into  South  Carolina,  and  by  1760  the  popu 
lation  was  estimated  atone  hundred  and  fifty  thousand,  three 
fourths  of  whom  were  slaves. 


GEORGIA,  1733 

The  last  as  well  as  the  first  of  the  thirteen  English  colo 
nies  planted  in  North  America  belonged  to  the  southern 
group,  and  a  period  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  years 
elapsed  between  the  founding  of  the  two,  1607-1733. 
Georgia  is  distinguished  from  its  twelve  sisters  for  the  fact 
that  it  was  the  only  one  which  received  aid  in  its  founding 
from  the  British  Parliament.  All  the  others  had  been 
founded  by  individuals,  by  companies,  or  by  a  spontaneous 
movement  of  the  people  from  other  colonies. 

James  Oglethorpe.  —  The  founder  of  Georgia  was  James 
Oglethorpe,  who  alone  of  all  the  colony  builders  lived  till 
after  the  Revolution  and  saw  the  thirteen  colonies  become 


THE   CHARTER 


6l 


an  independent  nation.      Oglethorpe   had   fought  in    the 
European  wars  under  the   Duke  of   Maryborough.       Re 
turning    to    England,    he 
was  elected  to  Parliament, 
and  was  now  one  of  the 
most   prominent   men  of 
the  kingdom. 

For  three  reasons  Ogle 
thorpe  conceived  the  plan 
of  founding  a  new  col 
ony  :  — 

1 .  To  furnish  a  military 
barrier  between  the  Caro- 
linas  and  the  troublesome 
Spaniards  of  Florida. 

2.  To  offer  a  refuge  to 
persecuted  Protestants  of 
Europe. 

3.  To  transfer  the  prisoners  for  debt  in  England  to  the 
American  forest,  where  they  might  begin  life  anew. 

The  Charter ;  First  Settlements.  —  A  charter  for  the 
country  between  the  Savannah  and  Altamaha  rivers,  and 
westward  to  the  "  South  Sea,"  which  meant  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  was  granted  for  twenty-one  years  to  a  company  of 
trustees.  The  new  country  was  named  Georgia  for  George 
II  who  had  granted  the  charter.  Oglethorpe  was  chosen 
governor  and  with  thirty-five  families  he  reached  the 
mouth  of  the  Savannah  in  the  spring  of  1733  ;  and  here 
on  a  bluff  overlooking  the  river  and  the.  sea  he  founded  a 
city  and  called  it  by  the  name  of  the  river. 

A  year  later  a  shipload  of  Salzburgers,  Lutheran  refu 
gees  from  Salzburg,  Austria,  a  deeply  religious  people, 
came  and,  with  the  aid  of  Oglethorpe,  they  founded  the 


JAMES  OGLETHORPE 


62 


OTHER  FACTS  ABOUT  GEORGIA         63 

town  of  Ebenezer.  The  governor  then  sailed  for  England, 
and  returning  brought  more  emigrants,  among  whom  were 
John  Wesley,  the  founder  of  the  Methodist  Church,  and 
his  brother  Charles,  who  came  as  secretary  to  Oglethorpe. 
The  Moravians  and  Scotch  Highlanders  also  came  and 
sought  a  home  in  the  forests  of  Georgia. 

In  1739,  while  England  and  Spain  were  at  war,  Ogle 
thorpe  made  an  expedition  by  sea  against  St.  Augustine, 
but  failed  to  take  the  town.  Three  years  later  when  the 
Spaniards  with  several  ships  made  an  attack  on  Georgia, 
Oglethorpe  defeated  them  by  a  very  clever  strategy.1 

Other  Facts  about  Georgia.  —  In  some  respects  Georgia 
differed  at  first  from  the  other  colonies.  I.  Slavery  and  in 
toxicating  liquors  were  prohibited.  2.  Each  settler  was 
allowed  but  a  small  farm  which  must  descend  in  the  male 
line.  3.  The  trustees  governed  the  colony  and  the  people 
were  given  no  part  in  the  government. 

In  all  these  matters  a  majority  of  the  people  wanted  a 
change,  and  they  won.  They  declared  that  the  prohibition 
of  liquors  drove  the  West  India  trade  away  from  them  and 
that  the  colony  could  not  develop  without  slave  labor,  and 
both  were  at  length  introduced. 

In  the  matter  of  government  the  trustees  were  not  very 
successful  and  in  1752  they  gave  it  up.  Georgia  then  be 
came  a  royal  colony,  after  which  the  people  elected  the 

1  The  story  of  the  strategy  is  as  follows :  A  Frenchman  deserted  from 
Oglethorpe's  army  and  joined  the  Spaniards.  Oglethorpe  then,  pretending 
that  the  deserter  was  a  spy  sent  by  himself  to  the  enemy,  sent  him  a  letter  by 
a  Spanish  prisoner  whom  he  had  captured.  In  this  letter  Oglethorpe  ordered 
the  "  spy  "  to  try  to  persuade  the  Spaniards  to  remain  three  days  longer 
until  a  British  fleet  that  was  coming  should  arrive.  The  letter,  as  Oglethorpe 
expected,  was  delivered  to  the  Spanish  commander,  who  then  hanged  the 
Frenchman  and  hastened  with  his  fleet  back  to  Florida  to  escape  the  supposed 
English  fleet. 


64         SCHOOL    HISTORY    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

assembly  and  the  king  appointed  the  governor.  The 
Church  of  England  was  made  the  state  church,  but  religious 
freedom  was  extended  to  all  Protestants. 

At  the  coming  of  the  Revolution  some  fifty  thousand 
people  lived  in  the  colony,  about  half  of  whom  were  slaves. 
The  chief  products  were  rice,  indigo,  and  lumber,  and  there 
was  a  lucrative  fur  trade  with  the  Indians.  Savannah  was 
the  only  town  and  it  was  but  a  wooden  village.  The  roads 
were  but  Indian  trails.  The  people  lived  apart  and  saw 
little  of  one  another. 

SUMMARY 

America  had  been  discovered  a  hundred  years  before  any  permanent 
colony  of  importance  was  planted  within  the  area  that  became  the 
United  States. 

Spain  laid  claim,  not  only  to  Central  and  South  America,  but  also 
to  North  America.  France  and  England  disputed  the  claims  of  Spain, 
but  owing  to  internal  strife  they  were  slow  in  making  attempts  at  colo 
nization.  The  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  1588,  opened  the  way  to 
English  colonization. 

The  first  permanent  white  settlements  on  the  soil  of  the  United 
States  were  made  by  Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine  (1565)  and  Santa  Fe 
(1582).  The  first  English  settlements  were  made  by  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland,  and  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  on 
the  coast  of  North  Carolina,  then  called  Virginia  (1582-1587).  These 
were  not  permanent. 

Virginia. — The  first  permanent  English  settlement  was  made  at 
Jamestown  in  1607,  under  a  charter  granted  in  1606  to  the  London 
Company.  The  colony  would  have  perished  but  for  the  efforts  of  John 
Smith.  For  some  years  the  settlers  suffered  great  hardships  and  the 
colony  grew  but  slowly.  The  year  1619  is  marked  by  the  first  meeting 
of  the  burgesses,  the  introduction  of  slavery,  and  by  the  coming  of 
young  women  to  become  wives  of  the  planters.  In  1624  Virginia 
became  a  royal  colony.  The  long  governorship  of  Berkeley  was  dis 
turbed  by  discontent  of  the  people  which  brought  about  Bacon's 
Rebellion,  1676.  After  this  Virginia  developed  rapidly,  and  at  the 


NOTES  65 

coming  of  the  Revolution  was  the  most  populous  of  all  the  English 
colonies. 

Maryland.  —  George  Calvert,  a  Roman  Catholic  nobleman,  the  first 
Lord  Baltimore,  conceived  the  plan  of  founding  a  colony.  On  his  death 
the  plan  was  carried  out  by  his  son,  the  second  Lord  Baltimore.  The 
grant  was  made  for  the  part  of  Virginia  north  of  the  Potomac,  and 
the  first  settlement  made  in  1634.  The  colony  grew  very  rapidly. 
The  Toleration  Act  was  passed  in  1649.  Maryland  became  a  royal 
colony  in  1691,  but  was  restored  to  the  proprietor  in  1715. 

North  Carolina.  —  In  1663  King  Charles  gave  the  vast  territory  south 
of  Virginia  to  eight  men.  The  first  settlement  was  made  near  Albe- 
marle  Sound  ten  years  before  this  (1553)  by  people  from  Virginia,  and 
the  second  a  few  years  later  on  the  Cape  Fear  River  by  New  England 
people.  Attempts  to  introduce  aristocratic  government  by  means  of  the 
"  Grand  Model  "  did  not  succeed. 

South  Carolina.  —  First  settlement  was  made  in  1670,  and  ten  years 
later  Charleston  was  founded.  This  colony  depended  on  slave  labor 
from  the  beginning.  Huguenots  in  large  numbers  came  about  1700. 
The  proprietary  government  was  so  unsatisfactory  that  the  people 
begged  that  it  be  made  a  royal  colony.  This  request  was  granted  in 
1719,  and  ten  years  later  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina  were 
separated. 

Georgia.  —  General  James  Oglethorpe  founded  Georgia,  the  last  of 
the  thirteen  colonies,  in  1733,  his  objects  being  to  give  prisoners  for 
debt  another  chance,  to  make  a  barrier  between  South  Carolina  and 
Spanish  Florida,  and  to  furnish  an  asylum  for  persecuted  Protestants. 
At  first  slaves  and  strong  drink  were  prohibited,  but  were  later  intro 
duced.  Georgia  became  a  royal  colony  in  1752. 


NOTES 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  born  in  1552,  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  at  the  age  of 
seventeen  was  a  soldier  in  France  aiding  the  Huguenots.  After  returning  to  England 
he  became  a  favorite  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  story  is  that  one  day  when  she  came 
to  a  miry  place  while  walking  Raleigh  threw  his  costly  cloak  in  the  mud  for  her  to 
step  on.  This  greatly  pleased  the  queen.  Five  times  Raleigh  attempted  to  plant  a 
colony  in  America,  but  none  of  them  proved  to  be  permanent.  He  succeeded, 
however,  in  awakening  in  the  English  people  a  great  interest  in  colony  planting 
and  is  rightly  called  the  father  of  English  colonization  in  America.  After  the 
death  of  Elizabeth,  Raleigh  fell  into  disfavor  with  King  James  I  and  was  cast  into 
F 


66         SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

prison.     After  many  years  in  prison  on  a  charge  of  disloyalty  and  conspiracy  he 
was  put  to  death  (1618).     While  in  prison  Raleigh  wrote  a  History  of  the  World. 

John  Smith,  according  to  his  own  story,  had  a  most  adventurous  life.  As  a 
youth  he  served  in  the  wars  of  the  Netherlands.  He  then  embarked  on  the  Medi 
terranean,  and  thrown  overboard  as  a  heretic,  swam  to  an  uninhabited  island,  was 
picked  up  by  a  vessel,  and  carried  to  Egypt.  Next  we  find  him  in  the  Austrian 
army  fighting  the  Turks.  On  one  occasion  while  storming  a  Turkish  fort  he  was 
chosen  by  lot  to  fight  a  Turkish  general  in  single  combat.  He  cut  off  the  Turk's 
head  and  two  other  Turks  who  came  out  to  meet  him  met  with  the  same  fate.  At 
length  Smith  was  captured  by  the  Turks  and  sold  into  slavery.  He  slew  his  master 
with  a  flail,  donned  his  clothes,  and  escaped  into  the  Syrian  Desert.  After  wander 
ing  through  every  country  of  Europe  he  returned  to  his  native  land  and  soon  after 
embarked  for  Virginia. 

REFERENCES 

Elson.  "  History  of  the  United  States  "  ;  Bryant  and  Gay,  "  History," 
Vol.  I ;  Thwaites,  "The  Colonies  "  ;  Lodge,  «  The  English  Colonies  "  ; 
Wilson,  "  History,"  Vol.  I ;  Fiske,  "  Old  Virginia  and  her  Neighbors ; 
Eggleston,  "  The  Transit  of  Civilization  "  ;  McCrady,  "  History  of  South 
Carolina  under  Proprietary  Government";  Fisher,  "Colonial  Era"; 
Doyle,  "  The  English  in  America  "  ;  Hart,  "  American  History  told  by 
Contemporaries  "  and  "  Source  Readers." 


CHAPTER   IV 
COLONIZATION;  NEW  ENGLAND 

AT  the  time  of  the  founding  of  the  first  of  the  English 
colonies  in  America  the  blessings  of  religious  liberty  were 
unknown  in  the  Christian  world.  For  a  hundred  years  the 
intolerant  spirit  of  the  Middle  Ages  had  been  softening,  but 
another  hundred  years  were  yet  to  pass  before  one  could 
stand  in  the  broad  daylight  of  religious  liberty. 

England  was  one  of  the  most  enlightened  countries,  but 
even  in  England  all  who  dissented  from  the  Established 
Church  were  objects  of  persecution.  Many  there  were  who 
refused  to  conform  with  the  Established  Church.  These 
were  called  Nonconformists,  Dissenters,  or  Puritans.  The 
Puritans  were  so  called  because  they  attempted  to  purify 
the  church  without  leaving  it,  while  others  who  separated 
from  the  church  altogether  were  known  as  Separatists. 
The  Separatists  were  few  in  number  compared  with  the 
Puritans. 

THE  PILGRIM  FATHERS 

At  the  little  town  of  Scrooby  in  Nottinghamshire,  Eng 
land,  was  a  scattered  congregation  of  Separatists.  After 
enduring  many  persecutions  this  little  band  of  Christians 
fled  from  their  native  land  and  took  refuge  in  Holland. 
Here  they  dwelt  for  eleven  years,  earning  their  bread  by 
the  labor  of  their  hands. 

But  these  Pilgrims,  as  they  were  now  called  because  of 
their  wanderings,  were  not  contented  in  Holland.  They 

67 


68        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES 

were  unwilling  to  give  up  their  language  and  their  customs 
for  those  of  the  Dutch,  and,  as  the  spirit  of  persecution 
had  not  abated  in  England,  their  thoughts  turned  to  the 
wilderness  of  America.  Securing  two  little  vessels,  the 
Speedwell  and  the  Mayflower,  they  set  out  on  their  long 


THE  "  MAYFLOWER  " 

journey  ;  but  the  Speed^cvell  proved  unfit  for  sea  and  its 
passengers  were  transferred  to  the  Mayflower, 

The  leaders  of  the  movement  were  William  Brewster 
and  John  Carver,  elderly  men,  and  William  Bradford  and 
Edward  Winslow,  both  young  men  under  thirty.  At 
Plymouth,  England,  where  they  made  a  stop,  they  were 
joined  by  Captain  Miles  Standish,  who  was  in  sympathy 
with  them  though  not  a  member  of  the  congregation. 


LANDING   OF   THE   PILGRIMS 


69 


One 


The    company  numbered  one  hundred    and  two. 
died  on  the  voyage  and  one  was  born. 

Landing  of  the  Pilgrims.  —  The  voyage  was  long  and 
perilous,  but  the  prospect  of  a  home  where  they  could 
worship  God  in  their  own  way  and  still  be  Englishmen 
filled  them  with  courage.  They  had  received  a  grant  from 
the  Virginia  Company  to  settle  in  the  Hudson  Valley,  but 


THE  LANDING  OF  THE  PILGRIMS 

they  landed  on  the  coast  of  New  England,  and  here  they 
remained. 

Before  landing  they  drew  up  a  compact  for  the  govern 
ment  of  the  colony,  and  chose  John  Carver  the  first  gov 
ernor.  By  this  compact  they  pledged  themselves  "  in  the 
presence  of  God  and  of  one  another"  to  frame  and  to  obey 
such  laws  as  they  might  need. 

The  Mayflower  entered  Cape  Cod  Harbor  on  November 
n,  and  an  exploring  party  went  ashore.  They  found 


70        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

the  snow  half  a  foot  deep,  and  the  wind  blew  spray  from 
the  sea  upon  them,  where  it  froze  until  their  "  clothes 
looked  like  coats  of  iron." 

At  length  they  chose  Plymouth  Harbor  as  a  landing 
place,  and  the  rock  on  which  they  landed  has  been  called 
Plymouth  Rock.  The  men  were  soon  busy  building  cabins, 
returning  each  night  to  the  ship  where  the  women  and 
children  remained  for  several  weeks  longer. 


PLYMOUTH  ROCK  AS  IT  NOW  APPEARS 

The  winter  was  long  and  severe,  and  ere  the  coming  of 
spring  more  than  forty  of  the  little  band  had  been  laid  in 
the  grave.  And  yet  when  the  Mayflower  sailed  for  Eng 
land  in  the  spring,  not  one  of  the  survivors  returned  with 
her.  History  furnishes  no  example  of  a  more  heroic 
people. 

The  Pilgrims  and  the  Indians.  —  The  Indians  about 
Plymouth  Harbor  had  been  swept  away  by  a  pestilence, 
and  the  Pilgrims  saw  but  few  during  the  winter.  One  day 
in  the  spring  the  people  saw  an  Indian  approaching 
them,  crying  in  English,  "Welcome,  Englishmen."  This 


THE   PILGRIMS   AND    THE   INDIANS 


EDWARD  WINSLOW 
From  the  original  portrait  in  possession  of  the  Pilgrim  Society  of  Plymouth 

Indian,  whose  name  was  Samoset,  came  again  a  few  days 
later  and  brought  with  him  a  friend  named  Squanto,  who 
was  to  become  the  benefactor  of  the  colony. 


72        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Squanto  had  been  kidnaped  some  years  before  and 
sold  into  slavery.  He  was  rescued  by  an  Englishman,  and 
from  this  time  he  was  a  great  friend  of  the  English.  He 
now  taught  the  colonists  many  things  about  fishing  and 
raising  corn.  He  informed  them  also  that  the  great  chief 
of  his  tribe,  Massasoit,  wished  to  make  a  treaty  of  friendship 
with  them.  The  treaty  was  soon  made  and  was  faithfully 
kept  by  both  sides  for  more  than  fifty  years.  Massasoit 
was  chief  of  the  Wampanoag  tribe,  which  had  a  powerful 
enemy  in  the  Narragansett  tribe,  whose  chief  was  Canonicus. 
Wishing  to  show  hostility  to  the  new  friends  of  his  old 
enemy,  Canonicus  sent  Governor  Bradford  1  a  snake  skin 
filled  with  arrows.  But  when  the  skin  was  returned  full  of 
powder  and  shot,  the  chief  decided  that  it  would  be  better 
to  make  friends  of  the  white  men  and  did  so. 

The  Plymouth  colony  increased  slowly,  but  the  people 
were  industrious  and  within  a  few  years  they  were  living 
in  comparative  comfort.  The  American  people  look  back 
with  pride  upon  the  sturdy  Christian  character  of  the 
founders  of  the  nation,  and  it  is  certain  that  none  hold  a 
higher  place  of  honor  in  the  American  heart  than  the 
little  band  of  Pilgrims  that  settled  at  Plymouth  in  1620. 

MASSACHUSETTS 

New  England  Charters.  —  During  the.  ten  years  follow 
ing  the  migration  of  the  Pilgrims,  in  1620,  various  scattered 
settlements  sprang  up  in  the  neighborhood  of  Plymouth, 
but  it  was  not  until  1630  that  the  great  Puritan  migration 
was  begun. 

1  The  first  governor,  John  Carver,  died  the  first  year  after  landing.  William 
Bradford  was  then  chosen  governor,  and  he  held  the  post  for  thirty-one  years. 
Nearly  all  the  Pilgrims  who  survived  the  first  winter  lived  to  be  old. 


THE   PURITAN    EXODUS;    FOUNDING   OF   BOSTON       73 

We  have  noticed  in  our  account  of  Virginia  that  King 
James  gave  a  charter  to  two  companies,  the  London  and 
Plymouth  companies.  The  London  Company  founded 
Jamestown  ;  the  Plymouth  Company  did  nothing.  But  in 
1620  the  Plymouth  Company,  now  called  the  Council  for 
New  England,1  received  a  charter  for  the  vast  territory 
between  the  fortieth  and  forty-eighth  degrees  of  latitude. 
This  company  made  many  land  grants.  One  of  these  was 
to  John  Endicott  and  a  few  companions.  Endicott,  with 
sixty  persons,  came  and  settled  at  Salem  in  1628,  and  he 
was  soon  joined  by  several  hundred  others,  This  was  only 
the  beginning  of  a  far  greater  migration  that  was  soon  to 
follow. 

The  Puritan  Exodus ;  Founding  of  Boston.  —  King 
James  died  in  1625,  and  his  son,  Charles  I,  persecuted  the 
Dissenters  more  viciously  than  his  father  had  done.  In 
spite  of  this  they  increased  greatly,  and  large  numbers  of 
them  now  determined  to  leave  their  native  land  for 
America.  Not  satisfied  with  a  land  grant  from  the  Coun 
cil  for  New  England,  they  sought  a  royal  charter  and 
received  it. 

This  charter  was  granted  to  the  Massachusetts  Bay 
Company,  in  March,  1629.  It  gave  the  company  power 
to  make  laws,  which  should  not  be  contrary  to  the  laws  of 
England,  and  to  carry  on  trade.  The  charter  included 
the  territory  between  a  point  three  miles  north  of  the 
Merrimac  to  a  point  three  miles  south  of  the  Charles 
River,  and  westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  was 
thought  to  be  much  nearer  than  it  is. 

The  next  year,  1630,  John  Winthrop,  a  gentleman  of 
wealth  and  education,  embarked  with  nearly  a  thousand 

1  The  country  had  been  named  New  England  by  John  Smith  of  Virginia 
fame,  who  had  explored  the  coast  a  few  years  before. 


74        SCHOOL   HISTORY 


HE   UNITED    STATES 


people  for   Massachusetts  Bay,  taking   the    chartef  with 
him.     The   Pilgrims  who    had  settled    at  Plymouth   were 

nearly  all  poor 
and  uneducated ; 
but  among  the 
Puritans  were 
many  men  of 
culture  and  influ 
ence.  The  Puri 
tans  now  came  in 
large  numbers  to 
Massachusetts,1 
and  in  ten  years 
(163 0-1640) about 
twenty  thousand 
had  migrated 
from  England  to 
the  colony.  Win- 
throp,  finding  a 
clear  spring  of 
water  on  a  pen 
insula,  decided 
there  to  found  a  town  and  he  called  it  Boston.  Thus  began 
the  leading  city  of  New  England. 

Government  of  Massachusetts.  —  The  charter  granted  the 
power  of  governing  the  colony  to  a  governor,  a  deputy 
governor,  and  eighteen  assistants,  all  to  be  chosen  by  the 
company.  None  but  church  members  could  become  mem 
bers  of  the  company,  or  have  a  vote.  The  voters  were 
called  freemen.  At  length  the  people  became  dissatisfied 
and  demanded  an  assembly,  similar  to  the  house  of  bur- 

1  Massachusetts  was  called  Massachusetts  Bay  for  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  after  its  founding. 


JOHN  WINTHROP 


SOME   UNPLEASANT   HAPPENINGS 


75 


gesses  in  Virginia.  The  demand  was  granted,  and  the 
governor,  assistants,  and  assembly  were  together  called 
the  General  Court,  which  made  the  laws  for  the  people. 
In  1644  a  dispute  arose  between  a  rich  man  and  a  poor 
woman  over  the  ownership  of  a 
pig.  The  General  Court  was 
called  on  to  decide  the  matter, 
and  the  assistants  and  assembly 
men  could  not  agree.  This  fact 
led  to  a  separation  of  the  two, 
and  from  this  time  the  legis 
lature  was  composed  of  two 
houses. 

Some  Unpleasant  Happenings. 
-There  was  a  young  minister 
named  Roger  Williams  who  came 
from  England  to  Massachusetts 
in  1631.  He  did  not  agree  with 
the  Puritans  in  many  things. 
He  said  that  the  civil  law  had 
no  power  over  the  conscience, 
that  it  was  wrong  to  force  people 
to  attend  church,  and  he  declared 
that  the  king  had  no  right  to  give 
away  lands  that  belonged  to  the 
Indians.  The  Puritans  did  not 
like  Roger  Williams.  He  made 
them  uncomfortable  with  his  criticisms,  and  .the  General 
Court  decided  to  send  him  back  to  England.  Williams, 
hearing  of  this  decision,  fled  into  the  forest  in  midwinter 
(1636).  We  shall  meet  him  again  when  we  treat  of  Rhode 
Island. 

Another  disturber  was  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson,  a  talented 


ROGER  WILLIAMS 

Statue  by  Franklin  Simmons  at 

Providence,  R.I. 


76        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

and  eloquent  woman.  She  objected  to  various  Puritan 
customs,  especially  to  the  habit  of  holding  meetings  to 
which  the  women  were  not  admitted.  She  held  meetings 
of  women  and  taught  some  things  that  caused  much  dis 
turbance.  At  length  it  was  decided  that  she  must  leave 
the  colony,  and  she  did  so.  We  shall  meet  her  also  in 
Rhode  Island. 

Twenty  years  after  Roger  Williams  was  banished  a 
more  serious  affair  disturbed  the  people  of  Massachusetts, 
-  the  coming  of  a  few  Quakers  from  England.  The 
Puritans  did  not  want  Quakers  among  them.  They  did 
not  pretend  to  grant  religious  freedom,  except  to  their 
own  class,  and  when  the  Quakers  came  and  cried  out 
against  the  Puritan  religion,  there  was  much  disturbance 
among  the  people.  The  General  Court  decided  to  banish 
them.  But  this  would  do  no  good  for  they  would  come  again. 
It  was  then  decided  to  put  any  Quaker  to  death  who 
returned  to  the  colony  after  being  banished.  Four  of 
them  who  returned  were  hanged.  The  law  was  then 
repealed  and  the  Quakers  in  time  became  quiet,  useful 
citizens. 

Still  another  disturbance,  the  most  serious  of  all,  came 
to  Massachusetts  in  1692.  This  is  known  as  the  Salem 
Witchcraft.  The  age  was  a  superstitious  one  and  witch 
craft  was  believed  in  at  this  time  in  every  part  of  the 
civilized  world.1  Some  young  girls  at  Salem,  Massachu 
setts,  who  had  been  reading  witch  stories,  imagined  they 
were  bewitched  by  an  old  Indian  woman,  whom  they 
accused.  The  people  became  greatly  excited  and  the 
craze  spread  like  a  prairie  fire.  Hundreds  were  thrown 
into  prison  ;  twenty  were  put  to  death.  After  a  year 

1  In  England  the  law  inflicting  the  death  penalty  for  witchcraft  was  not 
repealed  till  forty  years  after  this  time. 


FOUNDING   OF'   CONNECTICUT  77 

or   two   the   craze    spent   itself    and    the   prisoners   were 
released. 


CONNECTICUT  AND  RHODE  ISLAND,  1636 

One  of  the  little  towns  that  grew  up  near  Boston  was 
Cambridge  (then  called  Newtown),  and  the  leading  man  in 
the  place  was  the  Rev.  Thomas  Hooker,  who  had  come 
from  England  in  the  same  ship  with  the  Rev.  John  Cotton, 
the  leading  minister  in  Boston.  Thomas  Hooker  could  not 
agree  with  John  Winthrop,  the  governor  of  the  colony. 
Hooker  believed  that  all  the  people  who  were  subject  to 
the  laws  should  have  something  to  say  in  making  them. 
Winthrop  favored  keeping  the  government  in  the  hands  of 
the  few. 

Founding  of  Connecticut.  — It  was  partly  for  this  reason, 
no  doubt,  that  Thomas  Hooker  determined  to  go  to  the  val 
ley  of  the  Connecticut  River  and  found  another  colony. 
In  the  balmy  days  of  June,  1636,  he  and  his  congregation 
migrated  on  foot  to  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut,  driving 
their  flocks  before  them.  Joining  a  few  settlers  already 
there,  they  founded  the  town  of  Hartford.  Other  congre 
gations  from  the  settlements  around  Boston  soon  followed. 
Windsor  and  Wethersfield  were  founded  near  Hartford,  and 
within  a  year  the  three  towns  had  a  population  of  eight 
hundred. 

This  country  was  still  a  part  of  Massachusetts ;  but  in 
1639  the  Connecticut  settlers  banded  together,  wrote  a 
constitution,  which  they  called  the  Fundamental  Orders, 
and  formed  a  little  republic  of  their  own.  This  was  the 
first  constitution  in  America,  and  Hartford  has  been  called 
the  birthplace  of  American  democracy.  This  little  repub 
lic  created  a  government  similar  to  that  of  Massachusetts, 


78        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

the  chief  change  being  that  no  religious  test  was  required 
for  citizenship. 

New  Haven  and  Saybrook.  —  The  year  before  the  found 
ing  of  Hartford  John  Winthrop,  son  of  the  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  built  a  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut 
River  and  named  it  Saybrook.  In  1638  the  Rev.  John 
Davenport  and  his  congregation  pitched  their  tents  under 
a  great  oak  tree  on  the  shore  of  Long  Island  Sound, 
founded  a  town  and  named  it  New  Haven.  In  this  colony 
none  but  church  members  could  vote.  Saybrook  was 
soon  sold  to  the  Hartford  colony,  but  New  Haven  pre 
ferred  to  remain  separate. 

The  Connecticut  Charter.  —  In  1662  the  younger  Win 
throp  secured  a  charter  from  King  Charles  II  for  Connecti 
cut,  which  was  made  to  include  New  Haven.  The  New 
Haven  people  were  very  much  opposed  to  being  joined  to 
Connecticut,  but  the  king  had  so  ordered  it  and  they  were 
obliged  to  yield.  John  Winthrop  who  had  secured  the 
charter  became  the  leading  man  in  the  colony,  and  was  its 
governor  for  many  years,  as  his  father  had  been  in  Massa 
chusetts.  The  Connecticut  charter  was  the  most  liberal  yet 
granted  to  any  American  colony.  It  granted  pure  self- 
government,  permitting  the  people  to  elect  their  governor 
and  to  make  all  their  own  laws. 

Beginnings  of  Rhode  Island.  — We  have  seen  how  Roger 
Williams  escaped  into  the  wilderness.  For  fourteen  weeks 
he  wandered  about,  as  he  afterward  said,  "  not  knowing 
what  bread  or  bed  did  mean."  He  often  slept  among  the 
Indians,  or  in  hollow  trees.  Early  in  the  spring  (1636)  he 
settled,  with  but  five  followers,  at  the  head  of  Narragan- 
sett  Bay,  on  land  given  him  by  the  Indians,  founded  a 
town  and  called  it  Providence.  Other  settlers  soon  came, 
and  among  them  was  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson,  who  like 


THE    PEQUOT   WAR  79 

Williams  had  been  banished  from  Massachusetts.1  She 
and  her  followers  founded  the  town  of  Portsmouth,  while 
William  Coddington  founded  Newport,  farther  southward. 
These  towns  were  joined  with  Providence,  and  together 
they  were  called  Rhode  Island. 

The  government  of  Rhode  Island  was,  like  that  of  Hart 
ford,  a  pure  democracy.  It  was  based  on  freedom  of  con 
science  and  no  religious  test  was  required.  But  bachelors 
were  not  allowed  to  vote.  In  1643  Williams  went  to  Eng 
land  and  secured  a  charter  for  Rhode  Island.  Twenty 
years  later  (1663)  Charles  II  granted  a  second  charter  to 
Rhode  Island.  This  was  very  similar  to  the  Connecticut 
charter.  It  gave  the  people  absolute  self-government, 
except  that  the  laws  should  conform  with  the  laws  of  Eng 
land.  It  also  guaranteed  religious  equality  to  all.  So 
liberal  were  these  charters  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode 
Island  that  they  became  state  constitutions  and  remained 
in  force  many  years  after  the  Revolutionary  War. 

The  Pequot  War.  —  These  new  settlements  in  the  Con 
necticut  Valley  were  fated  to  go  through  a  very  bitter 
experience  within  a  year  or  two  after  their  founding.  The 
Pequot  tribe  of  Indians  was  displeased  with  the  new  white 
settlements  so,  near  them,  and  determined  to  make  war 
on  them.  First  they  attempted  to  win  the  aid  of  the  power 
ful  Narragansett  tribe,  but  were  prevented  by  Roger  Wil 
liams,  who  was  a  favorite  with  the  Narragansett  chief. 
The  Pequots  attacked  the  lonely  settlers  here  and  there 
during  the  winter  of  1636-1637,  and  in  the  following  spring 
the  war  broke  out  in  earnest.  But  it  was  soon  over. 
About  eighty  white  men  and  some  Indian  allies  attacked 
the  Pequot  stronghold,  and  slew  about  six  hundred  in  a 

1  Mrs.  Hutchinson  afterward  moved  with  her  family  farther  westward  and 
at  last  was  murdered  by  the  Indians. 


80        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

night.     The  Pequot  tribe  was  destroyed,  and  for  forty  years 
thereafter  New  England  was  free  from  Indian  wars. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE  AND  MAINE 

The  first  settlements  in  the  territory  that  became  New 
Hampshire  were  made  about  three  years  after  the  Pil 
grims  settled  at  Plymouth.  A  large  tract,  between  the 
Merrimac  and  Kennebec  rivers,  had  been  granted  to  John 
Mason  and  Sir  Ferdinand  Gorges.  The  first  settlement 
was  made  in  1623  by  a  Scot  named  Thomson  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Piscataqua  and  was  called  Little  Harbor. 
Dover  and  other  towns  were  soon  begun.  Some  of  the 
settlements  were  made  by  followers  of  Mrs.  Hutchinson. 

The  tract  granted  to  Mason  and  Gorges  was  divided:  the 
portion  retained  by  Mason  became  New  Hampshire  (so 
called  after  Mason's  home  in  England),  and  the  portion 
kept  by  Gorges  became  Maine.  The  New  Hampshire 
towns  had  a  good  deal  of  trouble  with  their  government, 
and  in  1641  they  agreed  to  come  under  the  government  of 
Massachusetts.  Fifty  years  after  this  (1691)  New  Hamp 
shire  finally  separated  from  Massachusetts,  and  became  a 
royal  colony.  The  settlements  in  Maine  were  gradually 
absorbed  by  Massachusetts,  and  not  till  long  after  the 
Revolution  were  they  separated,  when  Maine  became  a  state 
in  the  Union. 

SUMMARY 

Religious  liberty  had  not  dawned  on  the  world  at  the  time  of  the 
settling  of  the  first  English  colonies.  In  England  those  who  sought 
to  purify  the  Established  Church  were  called  Puritans  ;  those  who  left 
it  were  called  Separatists.  Puritans  and  Separatists  were  sometimes 
called  Nonconformists,  or  Dissenters. 

The  Pilgrims  were  a  band  of  Separatists  who  escaped  to  Holland  and 
later  migrated  to  America,  settling  the  Plymouth  colony  in  1620.  They 
were  known  as  Pilgrims  because  of  their  wanderings. 


SUMMARY  8 1 

Massachusetts  Bay.  —  The  Puritans,  led  by  John  Winthrop,  settled 
about  Massachusetts  Bay  in  large  numbers  (1630-1640),  bringing  their 
charter  with  them.  The  government  was  in  the  hands  of  a  governor, 
his  deputy,  and  eighteen  assistants.  The  colony  banished  Roger 
Williams  (1636)  and  Anne  Hutchinson  (1637);  persecuted  Quakers 
(1655)  and  supposed  witches  (1692). 

Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island.  — Thomas  Hooker  founded  Connecti 
cut  and  Roger  Williams  Rhode  Island  in  1636.  In  1639  Connecticut 
produced  the  first  written  constitution.  Rhode  Island  secured  a 
charter  in  1643  and  another  in  1663.  In  1662  Connecticut  received  her 
charter,  which  included  New  Haven.  These  charters  gave  the  people 
complete  self-government.  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  were  dis 
turbed  by  the  Pequot  War  in  1637. 

New  Hampshire.  —  First  settlement  at  the  mouth  of  the  Piscataqua 
in  1623.  New  Hampshire  and  Maine  were  divided,  and  in  1641  New 
Hampshire  was  joined  with  Massachusetts,  but  became  a  separate  colony 
fifty  years  later.  Maine  remained  part  of  Massachusetts  till  after  the 
Revolution. 


CHAPTER   V 
NEW  ENGLAND  AFFAIRS 

WE  have  traced  the  settlement  of  six  colonies  in  New 
England.  Two  of  these,  Connecticut  and  New  Haven,  had 
united  into  one.  Two  others,  Massachusetts  and  Plymouth, 
were  yet  to  unite.  This  reduces  the  number  to  four ; 
namely,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  and 
New  Hampshire.  These  four  were  among  the  original 
thirteen,  and  all  became  states  in  the  Union  at  the  close  of 
the  war  for  independence.  The  other  two  New  England 
states,  Maine  and  Vermont,  came  into  the  Union  at  a  later 
period,  and  were  not  among  the  original  Thirteen  States. 

We  have  noticed  the  founding  and  early  growth  of  these 
colonies,  separately ;  let  us  now  give  attention  to  a  few 
events  that  concerned  them  all,  or  at  least  two  or  more  of 
them. 

THE  NEW  ENGLAND  CONFEDERACY,   1643-1684 

A  confederacy  is  a  union  or  league  of  states  or  colonies 
for  their  better  protection  and  mutual  advantage.  The 
people  of  New  England  felt  the  need  of  protection  from 
four  possible  sources  of  danger:  — 

i.  From  the  Dutch,  who  had  settled  on  the  Hudson,  as 
we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter ;  2.  from  the  French  who 
had  settled  on  the  St.  Lawrence ;  3.  from  the  Indians ;  and 
4.  from  the  possible  encroachments  of  the  mother  country, 
which  was  (1642-1649)  in  the  throes  of  civil  war. 

82 


KING   PHILIP'S   WAR  83 

The  call  for  a  union  of  the  colonies  came  from  Hartford, 
the  birthplace  of  the  first  written  constitution.  Only  four 
of  the  colonies  —  Hartford,  New  Haven,  Massachusetts, 
and  Plymouth  —  entered  into  the  league.  This  was  before 
Hartford  ami  New  Haven  had  been  joined  into  one.  The 
articles  were  drawn  up  at  Boston.  Each  colony  retained 
its  home  government  as  before.  The  business  of  the 
league  was  to  be  transacted  by  a  commission  of  eight  men, 
two  from  each  colony,  and  a  vote  of  six  was  required  to 
carry  any  measure.  This  league  continued  till  1684,- 
forty-one  years.  But  it  was  very  weak  after -1662,  when 
Hartford  and  New  Haven  were  united.  This  confederacy 
became  a  model  for  colonial  union  in  later  times  ;  it  also 
proved  useful  in  dealing  with  the  Dutch,  who  had  laid 
claim  to  the  Connecticut  Valley,  and,  above  all,  it  carried 
the  people  of  New  England  through  the  most  dangerous 
Indian  war  in  our  colonial  history.  This  is  known  as 

KING  PHILIP'S  WAR 

The  relations  of  the  colonists  with  the  Indians  were 
threefold.  They  preached  the  gospel  to  the  Indians,  they 
traded  with  them,  and  they  fought  with  them. 

The  colonists  were  sincere  in  preaching  to  the  Indians. 
Rev.  John  Eliot,  the  "  Apostle  to  the  Indians,"  translated 
the  Bible  into  their  language  (1665),  and  spent  much  of 
his  time  for  forty  years  preaching  to  them.  Eliot  had 
many  faithful  assistants,  and  many  of  the  dusky  inhabitants 
of  the  forest  learned  to  bow  down  to  the  Christian's  God. 

The  colonists  carried  on  trade  with  the  Indians  because 
it  was  profitable  and,  at  first,  even  necessary  in  preserving 
themselves  from  starvation.  But  it  was  most  natural  that 
at  times  trouble  between  the  two  races  would  arise,  so 
unlike  they  were  in  habits  and  aspirations. 


84       SCHOOL    HISTORY    OF   THE  UNITED   STATES 

King  Philip  was  the  son  and  successor  of  Massasoit,1 
the  chief  who  had  made  the  treaty  with  the  Pilgrims  soon 
after  their  landing.  For  half  a  century  this  treaty  had 
been  kept.  But  Philip  disliked  the  English  because  they 


A  BATTLE  WITH  THE  INDIANS 

had  taken  so  much  of  the  Indian  lands,  and  he  determined 
to  unite  the  Indians  against  them,  and  drive  them  from  the 
country. 

The  war  began   by  an    Indian  attack  on  the   town   of 

1  Massasoit  had  brought  his  two  sons  to  the  English  asking  that  they  be 
given  English  names,  and  they  were  called  Alexander  and  Philip.  Alexan 
der,  the  elder,  died  and  Philip  became  king. 


EDMUND   ANDROS  85 

Swansea.  The  alarm  soon  spread,  and  but  three  hours 
after  it  reached  Boston  a  body  of  men  were  marching  from 
that  city  to  the  Indian  country.  Other  towns  were  equally 
vigorous,  and  for  many  months  the  forest  rang  with  the 
crack  of  the  rifle  and  the  Indian  war  whoop. 

Philip  was  an  able  and  courageous  leader.  He  enlisted 
the  aid  of  the  Narragan setts  and  of  the  Nipmucks ;  but 
many  of  Eliot's  converts  aided  the  white  men.  Deerfield, 
Northfield,  and  other  towns  were  burned,  and  many  of 
the  inhabitants  massacred.  It  is  said  that  when  the  Indians 
attacked  Hadley,  an  aged  man  with  flowing  white  beard 
and  hair  suddenly  appeared  and  took  command,  and  the 
enemy  was  soon  driven  off.  The  people  thought  him  an 
angel  sent  to  their  deliverance.  It  proved  to  be  the  regi 
cide,  Goffe,  who  had  been  hiding  in  the  town.1 

In  the  following  winter  a  thousand  men  marched  against 
the  Indians.  They  surprised  the  Narragansett  stronghold, 
and  killed  several  hundred  in  a  night.  The  Indian  power 
was  now  broken,  and  Philip  himself  was  slain  by  one  of  his 
own  subjects,  who  had  turned  -against  him.  The  war 
soon  ended  and  never  again  was  there  an  Indian  war  in 
southern  New  England.  The  cost  of  the  war  bore  heavily 
on  the  colonists.  A  thousand  brave  young  men  had  per 
ished,  and  the  country  was  marked  with  desolate  farms  and 
ruined  homes. 

EDMUND  ANDROS 

The  disastrous  war  had  scarcely  ended  when  New  Eng 
land  had  to  pass  through  another  unpleasant  experience. 
King  Charles  II  had  come  to  dislike  New  England,  espe 
cially  Massachusetts.  The  people  were  too  independent  to 

1  Goffe  and  his  father-in-law,  Whalley,  who  had  signed  the  death  warrant 
of  King  Charles  I,  fled  to  America  after  the  Restoration  in  1660. 


86        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF    THE   UNITED    STATES 

please  him,  and  besides,  they  refused  to  give  up  Whalley 
and  Goffe,  who  had  aided  in  putting  his  father  to  death. 
The  people  of  Massachusetts  had  waited  fifteen  months 
before  proclaiming  Charles  king,  and  in  1661  they  issued 
a  Declaration  of  Rights  which  displeased  the  king,  and  he 
determined  to  revoke  their  charter. 

Massachusetts  loses  her  Charter.  —  On  various  grounds 
the  king  attacked  the  colony  and  in  1684  that  noble  char 
ter  which  John  Winthrop 
had  brought  from  Eng 
land  and  which  had  em 
bedded  itself  deeply  in 
the  hearts  of  the  people 
had  to  be  given  up.  The 
next  year  the  king  died ; 
his  brother  who  became 
king,  as  James  II,  proved 
himself  still  more  a  tyrant 
than  Charles  had  been. 

Coming  of  Andros.  — 
Massachusetts  was  now  a 
royal  colony  and  its  former 
independence  was  gone. 
In  1686  James  sent 
Andros  to  govern  all  New 
England  and  also  New 
York  and  New  Jersey.  This  new  governor  had  no  respect 
for  the  rights  of  the  people.  He  abolished  the  legisla 
ture,  taxed  the  people  as  he  chose,  sent  innocent  men 
to  jail,  and  even  attacked  the  titles  to  the  land.  He 
brought  Rhode  Island  under  his  sway,  and  went  to  Hart 
ford  and  demanded  the  charter  of  Connecticut.  While 
he  was  parleying  with  the  assembly  about  the  charter,  the 


NEW   MASSACHUSETTS   CHARTER  87 

lights  were  suddenly  put  out,  so  tradition  informs  us,  when 
Captain  Wadsworth  seized  the  charter  and  ran  out  and  hid 
it  in  the  hollow  of  an  oak  tree,  which  was  ever  after  known 
as  the  Charter  Oak.1 

Delivered  from  a  Tyrant  —  The  people  of  New  Eng 
land  were  not  subdued.  Their  half-century  of  self-gov 
ernment  had  filled  them  with  the  spirit  of  liberty  which 
could  not  be  crushed.  They  only  waited  their  opportunity, 
and  it  soon  came.  In  1688  James  II  was  driven  from  the 
throne  of  England,  and  William  of  Orange  became  king. 
When  the  news  reached  New  England,  the  shout  of  glad 
ness  from  the  people  echoed  from  hill  to  hill.  They  seized 
Andros  and  sent  him  a  prisoner  to  England. 

New  Massachusetts  Charter,  1691. — The  old  charters 
of  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  were  declared  restored 
and  these  two  colonies  were  soon  as  independent  as 
before.  Massachusetts  did  not  receive  back  her  old  char 
ter,  but  was  granted  a  new  one.  By  this  second  charter 
her  boundaries  were  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  Maine, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  Plymouth.  But  her  old  independence 
was  not  restored.  The  governor  must  henceforth  be 
chosen  by  the  king,  and  though  the  people  still  elected 
the  legislature,  the  laws  had  to  be  sent  to  England  for 
the  approval  of  the  king. 

Farewell  to  Plymouth.  —  Regretfully  we  take  leave  of 
Plymouth,  the  land  of  the  Mayflower  Pilgrims.  This  was 
the  oldest  of  all  the  New  England  colonies.  For  seventy- 
one  years  it  had  sailed  its  little  boat  through  storm  and 
sunshine ;  but  from  this  time  on  it  must  be  part  of  the 
greater  colony  of  Massachusetts.  Of  the  band  of  Pil 
grims  that  came  in  the  Mayfloiver  only  three  remained 

1  This  precious  tree  was  blown  down  in  1856,  and  a  monument  now  marks 
the  spot  where  it  stood. 


88        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

alive,  —  John  Cooke,  Mary  Cushman,  and  Peregrine  White, 
the  last  being  the  child  born  on  the  Mayflower. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  NEW  ENGLAND 

The  subject  of  education,  occupations,  manners  and 
customs,  peculiar  laws,  and  local  government;,  of  all  the 
colonies  will  be  treated  in  a  future  chapter  on  "  Colonial 
Life."  Here  we  shall  notice  briefly  the  growth  and 
development  of  the  New  England  settlements. 

The  Plymouth  Colony.  —  The  colony  of  Pilgrims  had  a 
very  slow  growth,  from  two  causes,  i.  They  were  Sepa 
ratists  ;  that  is,  they  had  separated  entirely  from  the 
Episcopal  Church,  and  even  the  Puritans  disliked  the  Sepa 
ratists.  2.  The  Pilgrims  borrowed  money  from  English 
merchants,  practically  mortgaging  themselves,  in  order  to 
embark  for  America.  This  debt  was  so  heavy  that  it  took 
them  many  years  to  pay  it.  From  these  causes  the  colony 
attracted  few  other  settlers  and  when  ten  years  had  passed 
(1630),  there  were  but  300  people  in  Plymouth.  Ten 
years  later,  however,  the  colony  numbered  3000,  and  in 
1670  about  8000. 

Massachusetts. — We  have  noticed  that  many  of  the 
early  settlers  of  Massachusetts  were  men  of  fortune  and 
standing  and  that  the  growth  of  the  colony  was  very 
rapid,  reaching  20,000  in  ten  years.  Nearly  all  the  settlers 
were  Puritans,  who  were  at  first  unfriendly  to  the  Sepa 
ratists  of  Plymouth.  But  after  reaching  America  the  Puri 
tans  themselves  became  Separatists.  They  never  had  any 
further  connection  with  the  Church  of  England,  and  the 
Puritan  Church  of  that  day  has  grown  into  the  Congrega 
tional  Church  of  the  present.  Puritanism  became  gradu 
ally  softened,  and  in  the  second  charter  (1691)  the  right  to 


THE  OTHER  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES      89 

vote  was  extended  to  non-church-members.  At  the  coming 
of  the  Revolution  Massachusetts  contained  about  300,000 
people  and  was  second  in  population  among  the  colonies, 
Virginia  coming  first. 

The  Other  New  England  Colonies  were  all  swarms  from 
this  mother  hive,  Massachusetts,  none  of  them  being  settled 
directly  from  England.  The  Connecticut  Valley  was  the 
only  portion  of  New  England  of  which  the  soil  was  fer 
tile  and  well  suited  to  farming.  This  fact  caused  a  rapid 
growth  of  Connecticut,  the  population  of  which  reached 
some  200,000  at  the  coming  of  independence.  At  the 
same  time  the  population  of  New  Hampshire  was  about 
75,000,  and  of  Rhode  Island  about  50,000. 

Vermont  was  first  known  as  the  "  New  Hampshire 
Grants,"  and  the  territory  was  claimed  by  both  New 
Hampshire  and  New  York.  In  1765  the  king  decided 
the  contest  in  favor  of  New  York ;  but  when  the  gov 
ernor  of  New  York  ordered  the  settlers  to  repurchase 
their  lands,  they  rose  in  rebellion.  They  called  them 
selves  the  "  Green  Mountain  Boys,"  and,  led  by  Ethan 
Allen  and  Seth  Warner,  they  demanded  that  the  "  New 
Hampshire  Grants  "  be  made  a  separate  state  under  the 
name  of  Vermont.  This  was  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revo 
lution,  and  the  domestic  quarrel  was  hushed  in  the  presence 
of  the  foreign  foe.  After  that  war  New  York  and  New 
Hampshire  were  again  ready  to  fight  over  the  territory ; 
but  it  was  decided  to  compromise,  and  Vermont  entered 
the  Union  in  1791,  as  the  first  state  aside  from  the  original 
thirteen. 

SUMMARY 

The  New  England  Confederacy  was  formed  in  1643  and  continued 
till  1684.  Four  colonies  were  in  the  union  —  Massachusetts,  Connecti 
cut,  New  Hampshire,  and  Plymouth.  It  was  a  model  for  later  union, 


90        SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

was  effective  in  defending  the  people  against  the  Dutch,  and  in  carrying 
on  the  war  with  King  Philip. 

King  Philip's  War  (1675-1678).  —  The  war  was  disastrous  to  New 
England.  A  thousand  men  perished  and  many  towns  were  destroyed. 
The  power  of  the  Indians  was  destroyed. 

Edmund  Andros  was  sent  by  King  James  II  to  unite  New  England 
with  New  York  and  New  Jersey  and  to  govern  all  (1686).  Massachu 
setts  had  lost  her  charter  in  1684.  On  the  fall  of  James,  Andros  was 
sent  a  prisoner  to  England ;  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  continued 
under  their  old  charters  ;  Massachusetts  was  granted  a  new  one  (1691), 
and  with  her  Plymouth,  Maine,  and  Nova  Scotia  were  united. 

Growth  of  New  England.  —  Plymouth  grew  slowly,  for  two  reasons  : 
the  fact  that  the  colonists  were  Separatists,  and  they  had  a  heavy  debt. 
Massachusetts  grew  rapidly,  there  being  about  three  hundred  thousand 
people  at  the  coming  of  the  Revolution.  Puritanism  became  softened 
and  non-church-members  were  given  the  right  to  vote.  Connecticut, 
Rhode  Island,  and  New  Hampshire  were  all  settled  by  people  from 
Massachusetts.  Connecticut  grew  rapidly  because  of  her  fertile  soil. 
Vermont  was  first  called  the  "  New  Hampshire  Grants,"  and  the  terri 
tory  was  claimed  by  both  New  York  and  New  Hampshire.  In  the  end 
Vermont  became  a  separate  state. 

REFERENCES 

In  addition  to  the  general  histories  hitherto  mentioned,  Fiske's 
"  Beginnings  of  New  England"  is  specially  recommended.  This  is  not 
a  juvenile  work,  but  the  style  is  clear  and  simple  and  not  beyond  the 
comprehension  of  the  pupils  of  the  Grammar  Schools.  The  volumes  in 
the  American  Commonwealth  Series  that  cover  New  England  states 
should  be  added,  and  also  biographies,  such  as  Wendell's  "Cotton 
Mather,11  Straus's  "Roger  Williams,"  and  Twitchell's  "John  Winthrop." 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES 

THE  thirteen  original  colonies  are  usually  mentioned 
as  divided  into  three  groups  ;  and  we  give  them  in  this 
form,  because  they  are  thus  more  easily  remembered  than 
when  given  in  the  order  of  their  founding,  and  because  the 
character  and  habits  of  the  people  warrant  this  division. 

We  have  noticed  two  of  these  groups :  first,  the  five 
Southern  Colonies  —  Virginia,  Maryland,  the  two  Caro- 
linas,  and  Georgia ;  second,  the  four  New  England  Colo 
nies  —  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  and 
New  Hampshire.  The  four  yet  to  be  noticed  are  known 
as  the  Middle  Colonies  —  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Penn 
sylvania,  and  Delaware.  The  first  of  these  four,  now  the 
most  populous  state  in  the  Union,  was  New  York. 

NEW  YORK,   1623 

The  thirteen  colonies  were  all  founded  by  English  people, 
except  New  York  and  Delaware.  New  York,  first  called 
New  Amsterdam,  was  settled  and  controlled  for  forty 
years  by  the  Dutch.  Dutch  sailors  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  were  among  the  boldest  in  the  world, 
and  no  power,  except  England,  was  so  great  on  the  sea  as 
Holland. 

Henry  Hudson.  —  A  Dutch  company,  desiring  to  find  a 
shorter  route  to  the  Orient,  sent  Henry  Hudson,  an  English 
navigator,  in  the  ship  Half  Moon  in  search  of  a  passage. 

91 


92         SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

The  northern  part  of  North  America  was  still  believed 
to  be  an  open  sea,  and  the  object  of  Hudson  was  the 
same  that  had  brought  Columbus  across  the  Sea  of 
Darkness  a  hundred  and  seventeen  years  before.  Hudson 


THE  "HALF  MOON"  IN  THE  HUDSON  RIVER 

did  not  find  a  northwest  passage,  but  he  discovered  the 
beautiful  river  that  bears  his  name,  in  September,  1609. 

He  sailed  up  the  river  to  the  site  of  Albany,  and  the 
grandeur  of  the  scenery  —  the  palisades,  the  majestic  hills, 
and  the  autumnal  beauty  of  the  forests  —  led  him  to  write 


NEW   NETHERLAND  93 

that  it  was  "  as  fair  a  land  as  was  ever  trodden  by  the  foot 
of  man."  1 

New  Netherland.  —  Hudson  also  sailed  into  the  Dela 
ware,  which  was  called  the  South  River,  while  the  Hudson 
was  called  the  North  River.  The  country  between  them  was 
called  New  Netherland.  In  1621  a  great  company  was 
chartered  in  Holland,  the  Dutch  West  India  Company, 
and  was  granted  the  right  to  make  settlements  in  New 
Netherland.  In  1623  (three  years  after  the  Pilgrims 
landed  at  Plymouth)  about  thirty  families,  chiefly  Walloons, 
(Dutch  word  for  strangers}  Protestants  from  Belgium,  en 
tered  the  Hudson,  some  settling  at  Manhattan  and  some 
at  Albany.2 

Other  Dutch  settlements  were  made,  on  the  Delaware, 
on  the  Connecticut,  and  on  Long  Island,  and,  indeed,  the 
Dutch  claimed  all  the  territory  between  the  Chesapeake 
Bay  and  the  Connecticut  River. 

The  Four  Dutch  Governors.  —  The  first  of  the  four  Dutch, 
governors  was  Peter  Minuit,  who  arrived  at  Manhattan 
Island  in  1626.  He  purchased  the  entire  island  from  the 
Indians  —  about  twenty-two  thousand  acres  —  for  about 
twenty-four  dollars'  worth  of  beads  and  ribbons.  No  other 
equal  area  in  the  world  is  now  worth  so  vast  a  sum  of 
money  as  Manhattan  Island.  Minuit  built  a  fort  and 

1  Hudson  was  not  the  first  to  discover  the  Hudson  River.     This  had  been 
done  by  Verrazano  eighty-five  years  before.     At  the  time  Hudson  was  explor 
ing  the  Hudson  River,  Champlain  was  exploring  the  lake  that  bears  his  name, 
and  John  Smith  was  bartering  with  the  Indians  in  the  wilderness  of  Virginia. 
The  next  year  (1610)  Hudson  made  a  voyage  in  an  English  ship,  and  while 
in  the  great  bay  that  was  afterward  called  by  his  name,  his  crew  became  muti 
nous,  and  set  him  with  his  son  and  a  few  others  adrift  in  an  open  boat.     The 
crew,  on  returning  to  England  was  sent  to   jail,  and  an  expedition  sent  to 
search  for  Hudson.     But  the  great  navigator  was  never  found. 

2  A  few  traders  had  come  as  early  as  1614. 


94        SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


started   a   town  on  the  island  and  gave  them   the   name 
of  New  Amsterdam. 

After  six  years  Minuit  was  recalled  and  Wouter  van 
Twiller  became  his  successor,  and  he,  in  turn,  was  suc 
ceeded  five  years  later  by  William  Kieft  Kieft  was 
energetic,  but  he  was  a  tyrant  and  wanting  in  tact.  He 
quarreled  with  the  Swedes  on  the  Delaware,  with  the  Eng 
lish  on  the  Connecticut,  and  with  the  Indians  on  all  sides. 
The  people  protested  against  his  methods  and  he  answered, 
"  In  this  country  I  am  my  own  master  and  may  do  as  I 

please."  After  ten 
years  of  turbulence 
and  misrule  Kieft 
was  recalled.  He 
sailed  for  Holland, 
but  the  vessel  was 
wrecked  at  sea  and 
the  fallen  governor 
was  among  the  lost. 
Peter  Stuy  vesant 
was  the  last  and 
most  famous  of  the 
Dutch  governors. 
Stuyvesant  was  an 
old  soldier  and  had 
lost  a  leg  in  battle. 
He  was  a  man  of 
iron  will,  had  no 
sympathy  with  the 
people,  and  no 

power  to  read   public   opinion ;   but  he  was  a  great  im 
provement  over  Van  Twiller  and  Kieft. 

Growth  of  New  Netherland.  —  Settlers  came  at  first  in  very 


PETER  STUYVESANT 


GOVERNMENT   OF   NEW   NETHERLAND  95 

small  numbers.  The  fact  that  the  settlements  existed  only 
to  enrich  the  West  India  Company  was  repelling  to  home 
seekers.  Five  years  after  the  first  settlement  was  made 
scarcely  three  hundred  people  lived  on  Manhattan  Island. 
Then  the  patroon  system  was  established.  By  this  system 
any  one  who  would  bring  or  send  fifty  settlers  was  granted 
a  tract  of  land  of  sixteen  miles'  frontage  on  a  river  or  bay, 
or  eight  miles  on  each  side  of  a  river.  It  was  not  long 
until  the  Hudson  Valley  was  dotted  with  these  great  estates 
of  the  patroons.  Most  of  them  became  rich  men  by  col 
lecting  rents  from  the  people  who  occupied  their  estates. 

About  the  time  that  Kieft  became  governor  the  patroon 
system  was  restricted  and  much  land,  as  well  as  the  Indian 
fur  trade,  was  thrown  open  to  independent  home  seekers. 
The  effect  was  magical.  People  came  from  the  English 
colonies,  and  from  nearly  every  country  of  Europe.  It 
was  said  that  in  1643  no  less  than  eighteen  languages 
were  spoken  in  New  Amsterdam.  In  1664  about  ten  thou 
sand  people  lived  in  New  Netherland. 

Government  of  New  Netherland.  —  The  government  of 
the  various  settlements  was  at  first  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  the  governor  and  a  council  of  five  men,  appointed  by  the 
company  in  Holland.  It  was  very  similar  to  the  govern 
ment  of  Virginia  before  the  first  house  of  burgesses  was 
elected.  But  the  people  were  discontented  in  having  no 
voice  in  making  their  own  laws,  especially  so  when  they 
compared  their  own  condition  with  that  of  the  self-govern 
ing  English  colonies  about  them.  They  demanded  a  share 
in  the  government.  Governor  Kieft  granted  them  an  as 
sembly  of  twelve  men,  but  managed  to  keep  all  the  power 
in  his  own  hands.  At  length,  when  Stuyvesant  was  gov 
ernor,  the  people  again  became  clamorous  for  an  assembly 
and  he  granted  their  request.  But  when  the  assembly  met, 


96         SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

the  cross  old  governor  would  sit  in  the  hall  with  them,  and 
the  loud  stamping  of  his  wooden  leg  on  the  floor  warned 
them  when  matters  were  not  going  to  please  him. 

In  1655  Stuyvesant,  with  a  fleet  of  seven  ships,  sailed 
into  the  Delaware  Bay  and  conquered  New  Sweden,  as  we 
shall  notice  again  when  we  treat  of  the  colony  of  Dela- 


NEVV  AMSTERDAM 

ware.  On  his  return  he  found  his  people  in  trouble  with 
the  Indians.  A  farmer  had  shot  a  squaw  for  stealing 
peaches  from  his  orchard.  This  brought  on  a  war,  which 
continued  at  intervals  for  several  years.  •  When  forty-one 
years  had  passed  after  the  settling  of  New  Amsterdam,  and 
Stuyvesant  had  been  governor  for  seventeen  years,  Dutch 
rule  in  America  came  to  an  end  and  New  Netherland 
ceased  to  exist. 

Conquest  of  New  Netherland.  —  England  laid  claim  to  all 
of  New  Netherland  and  decided  for  two  reasons  to  con- 


CONQUEST   OF   NEW   NETHERLAND  97 

quer  and  possess  it.  i.  The  Dutch  settlements  divided 
New  England  from  the  other  colonies  and  threatened 
British  dominion  in  America.  •  2.  The  Dutch  evaded  the 
navigation  laws  and  carried  large  quantities  of  produce 
from  the  English  colonies  to  Holland  without  paying  a 
duty. 

Colonel  Richard  Nicolls,  with  a  British  fleet,  sailed  into 
the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  in  1664  and  demanded  the  sur 
render  of  New  Amsterdam.  Stuyvesant  refused ;  "  he 
fumed  and  fretted  and  stamped  his  wooden  leg."  But  the 
people  refused  to  come  to  his  support.  They  were  tired 
of  his  tyrannical  rule  and  were  glad  to  welcome  the  Eng 
lish.  The  irate  old  governor  had  to  yield.  New  Amster 
dam  surrendered  and  became  New  York,  so  named  after 
the  Duke  of  York  (afterward  King  James  II)  to  whom 
King  Charles  granted  a  charter  (1664)  for  all  the  land 
between  the  Connecticut  and  the  Delaware.1 

Nicolls  became  the  first  English  governor  of  New  York. 
He  Was  wise  and  tactful,  and  he  retained  the  government 
very  much  as  it  had  been  under  the  Dutch.  He  framed 
a  code  of  laws,  known  as  the  Duke's  Laws,  which  were 
borrowed  largely  from  the  laws  in  New  England,  except 
that  the  people  had  no  part  in  the  government. 

The  people,  however,  especially  the  English  settlers  among 
them,  demanded  an  assembly.  This  was  granted  in  1683  ; 
but  two  years  later  Charles  II  died  and  the  proprietor  of 

1  Peter  Stuyvesant,  after  making  a  tour  to  Holland,  returned  and  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  New  York.  Here  on  his  farm  known  as  "The  Bowery  "  he 
spent  a  few  happy  years,  dying  in  1672.  He  was  buried  at  the  little  country 
church  near  his  home,  now  in  the  heart  of  the  vast  metropolis  whose  popula 
tion  is  ten  times  greater  than  that  of  all  the  American  colonies  of  that  day. 

Nine  years  after  the  Nicolls  conquest  England  and  Holland  were  again  at 
war  and  a  Dutch  fleet  recaptured  New  York  ;  but  it  was  ceded  back  to  the 
English  at  the  coming  of  peace  the  following  year. 

H 


98         SCHOOL    HISTORY    OF   THE  UNITED    STATES 

New  York,  the  Duke  of  York,  became  king  as  James  II, 
and  New  York  became  a  royal  colony.  King  James 
was  greatly  opposed  to  popular  government  and  he  united 
New  York  to  New  England  and  sent  Edmund  Andros  to  be 
governor,  with  headquarters  in  Boston,  as  we  have  seen. 
But  when  James  was  driven  from  the  British  throne,  the 
rule  of  Andros  came  to  an  end,  and  New  York  secured  the 
self-government  for  which  she  had  longed  for  many  years. 

Jacob  Leisler.  —  The  fall  of  Andros  left  New  York  with 
out  an  official  head,  and  Jacob  Leisler,  an  impetuous  German 
merchant,  took  control.  Leisler  was  doubtless  a  man  of 
honorable  intentions,  but  by  his  reckless  methods  he  made 
bitter  enemies.  When  the  governor  appointed  by  the  king 
arrived,  Leisler  was  imprisoned  and  his  enemies  were  deter 
mined  to  have  him  executed.  The  governor  hesitated  to 
sign  his  death  warrant,  but  was  induced  to  do  so  while 
drunk.  By  the  time  the  governor  had  recovered  his  senses 
Leisler  had  been  hanged. 

Growth  of  New  York.  —  The  growth  of  New  York  was 
steady  and  substantial.  The  Hudson  Valley  was  very  rich 
in  farm  lands  and  was  inhabited  chiefly  by  Dutch  farmers, 
who  retained  their  customs  and  language  for  many  years. 
The  two  great  industries,  farming  and  the  fur  trade,  engaged 
the  great  majority  of  the  people.  The  population  of  the 
colony  had  reached  about  twenty-five  thousand  by  the  year 
1 700.  It  is  supposed  that  there  were  about  eighty  thousand 
inhabitants  in  1750  and  more  than  twice  that  number  at  the 
opening  of  the  Revolution. 

NEW  JERSEY,  1664 

The  present  state  of  New  Jersey  was  a  part  of  New 
Netherland  as  claimed  by  the  Dutch.  It  was  also  included 
in  the  very  extensive  grant  of  Charles  II  to  his  brother 


NEW  JERSEY   DIVIDED 


99 


James  in  1664.  James  conveyed  it  to  two  of  his  friends, 
Lord  Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret.  The  latter  had 
been  governor  of  the  island  of  Jersey  in  the  English  Chan 
nel,  and  the  new  colony  was  called  New  Jersey.  The  first 
settlement  was  made  at  Elizabeth,  being  called  after  the 
name  of  Lady  Carteret.  Newark  was  founded  by  people 
from  New  Haven.  Carteret  issued  a  form  of  government 
called  the  "  Concessions,"  which  was  very  liberal  and 
attracted  many  settlers. 


A  NEW  JERSEY  FARMHOUSE 

New  Jersey  Divided.  —  Within  a  few  years  Berkeley  sold 
his  interests  to  some  Quakers,  one  of  whom  was  William 
Penn.  In  1676  New  Jersey  was  divided  into  East  Jersey 
and  West  Jersey,  the  latter  being  the  property  of  the 
Quakers.  On  the  death  of  George  Carteret  in  1680  East 
Jersey  also  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Quakers.  The 
Quaker  rule  was  mild  in  the  extreme  and  many  settlers 
were  attracted  to  the  colony. 

When  James  became  king  of  England,  he  demanded  that 


100      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED    STATES 

the  Jersey  charter  be  given  up,  and  sent  Andros  to  govern 
the  colony.  At  the  downfall  of  Andros  the  colony  was 
left  practically  without  a  government,  and  after  ten  years 
of  disorder  New  Jersey  was  surrendered  to  the  crown 
(1702)  and  became  a  royal  colony.  Queen  Anne,  who  was 
then  the  sovereign  of  England,  extended  the  authority  of 
New  York's  governor  over  New  Jersey.  This  arrangement 
continued  for  thirty-six  years  when,  in  1738,  the  two  were 
finally  separated. 

Rural  Life  in  Jersey.  —  New  Jersey  in  colonial  days  was 
a  land  of  farmers.  The  numerous  towns  were  little  else 
than  centers  of  farming  communities.  The  people  were 
happy  and  contented,  and  even  when  there  was  so  much 
trouble  about  the  government,  many  of  the  farmers  con 
tinued  raising  their  crops  and  enjoying  life,  giving  little 
heed  to  affairs  of  government.  The  colony  was  singu 
larly  free  from  Indian  wars.  In  1760  about  seventy-five 
thousand  people  lived  in  New  Jersey. 

DELAWARE,   1638 

The  soil  of  this  little  state  was  claimed  by  the  Dutch, 
through  the  discoveries  of  Hudson ;  by  the  Swedes,  who 
made  the  first  permanent  settlement ;  and  later  it  came  into 
possession  of  the  English. 

First  Settlements  in  Delaware.  —  As  early  as  1631  the 
Dutch  made  a  small  settlement  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
Delaware  Bay  ;  but  the  settlers  were  massacred  to  the  last 
man  by  the  Indians. 

Even  before  this  the  great  Swedish  king,  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  was  planning  to  colonize  the  western  bank  of 
the  Delaware.  He  was  deeply  interested  in  the  project 
and  pronounced  the  country  "the  jewel  of  his  kingdom." 


NEW    SWEDEN   CONQUERED    3Y   THE   DUTCH     IOI 

Gustavus  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Lutzen,  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  in  1632,  and  his  plan  to  plant  a  colony  in 
America  was  checked,  but  not  abandoned. 

At  length  the  Swedes  secured  the  services  of  Peter 
Minuit,  who  had  been  governor  of  New  Amsterdam,  and 
in  two  vessels  he  brought  over  a  company  of  settlers  in  1638. 
They  called  the  land  New  Sweden.1  On  the  site  of  Wil 
mington  they  made  a  settlement  and  named  it  Christina, 
after  the  child  queen  of  their  native  land.  They  purchased 
land  of  the  Indians  on  the  western  side  of  the  Delaware  as 
far  up  as  a  point  opposite  Trenton,  founded  a  town  on  the 
site  of  Philadelphia,  built  churches,  and  were  soon  a  most 
happy  and  prosperous  community. 

New  Sweden  conquered  by  the  Dutch.  —  By  1655  at  least 
seven  hundred  Swedes  were  scattered  along  the  Delaware, 
when  Peter  Stuyvesant  came  with  his  fleet  and  demanded 
the  surrender  of  the  colony.  The  Swedes  were  in  no  con 
dition  to  make  a  defense  and  they  yielded  without  a  struggle. 
New  Sweden,  which  had  continued  seventeen  years,  now 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  separate  colony ;  but  the  people  were 
permitted  to  retain  their  farms  and  they  continued  to 
prosper  under  the  new  government.  The  conquest  of  New 
Netherland  by  the  English  in  1664  included  Delaware, 
which  now  became  the  property  of  the  Duke  of  York. 

In  1682,  the  year  of  the  founding  of  Pennsylvania,  the 
Duke  of  York  sold  Delaware  to  William  Penn  and  it  was 
annexed  to  Pennsylvania.  In  1 702  Penn  granted  Delaware 
a  separate  legislature,  but  the  two  colonies  had  the  same 
governor,  and  the  history  of  Delaware  from  that  time  to 
the  coming  of  the  Revolution  was  identified  with  that  of 
its  great  neighbor  on  the  north. 

• l  The  only  right  the  Swedes  could  claim  to  the  land  was  based  on  the  as 
sumption  that  unoccupied  lands  were  common  property. 


102       SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


PENNSYLVANIA,  1682 

The  Quakers,  owing  to  their  peculiar  form  of  religion, 
were  a  persecuted  people  in  England  and  America.  They 
refused  to  recognize  social  rank  or  to  pay  taxes  to  carry 
on  wars.  The  British  Parliament  pronounced  them  a 
"  mischievous  and  dangerous  people."  Their  reception 
in  Massachusetts  we  have  seen. 

The  founder  of  the  sect  was  George  Fox,  an  English 
man  of  great  magnetism  and  religious  fervor.  His  con 
verts  were  chiefly  from 
among  the  poor,  and 
they  .were  greatly  elated 
when  the  young  son  of 
Admiral  Penn,  one  of 
the  most  prominent  men 
in  England,  became  a 
convert  to  their  society. 
The  idea  of  founding 
a  colony  in  America  for 
persecuted  Quakers  was 
conceived  by  George 
Fox  and  carried  out  by 
William  Penn.  Penn 
was  not  satisfied  with 
his  experience  in  New 
Jersey  and  he  cast  a 
wistful  eye  to  the  fair  lands  beyond  the  Delaware.  King 
Charles  II  was  indebted  to  Admiral  Penn  to  the  amount  of 
about  $80,000,  and  when  the  admiral  died,  his  son  William 
inherited  the  claim. 

The  Pennsylvania  Charter.  —  To  satisfy  this  claim  the 
king  granted  to  William  Penn  about  forty  thousand  square 


WILLIAM  PENN 


THE   FIRST    SETTLERS  103 

miles,  west  of  the  Delaware  and  north  of  Maryland.  The 
charter  was  granted  in  1681  and  the  king  named  the  new 
land  Pennsylvania  in  honor  of  the  dead  admiral. 

The  province  of  Pennsylvania  was  a  princely  domain,  a 
vast,  fertile  region  traversed  by  beautiful  rivers  and  lofty 
mountains,  and  containing  a  wealth  of  minerals  unequaled 
by  all  the  other  colonies  combined.  And  it  was  rightly 
named,  for  it  was  one  vast  forest,  extending  from  the  Dela 
ware  over  the  Appalachian  Mountain  system  and  far  into 
the  Ohio  Valley.1 

The  charter  granted  the  power  of  governing  the  colony 
to  Penn.2  As  a  token  of  allegiance  he  was  required  to 
send  the  king  two  beaver  skins  each  year,  and  a  fifth  of 
all  the  gold  and  silver  that  might  be  mined.  To  gain  an 
outlet  to  the  sea  Penn  purchased  Delaware,  called  the  "  Three 
Lower  Counties  "  or  "  The  Territories,"  from  the  Duke  of 
York.  He  drew  up  a  form  of  government,  giving  a  large 
share  of  the  governing  power  to  the  people.  When  it  became 
known  that  Penn,  who  had  a  reputation  all  over  England 
as  a  just  and  noble  man,  was  building  a  colony  in  America, 
many  of  the  people  were  ready  to  join  the  enterprise. 

The  First  Settlers.  —  Penn  chose  William  Markham,  his 
relative,  to  be  first  governor  of  Pennsylvania.  Markham 
sailed  with  three  shiploads  of  emigrants  in  the  autumn  of 
1 68 1.  He  bore  a  friendly  letter  from  Penn  to  the  Swedes 
on  the  Delaware.  "You  shall  be  governed  by  laws  of 
your  own  making,  and  live  a  free,  and  if  you  will,  a  sober 
and  industrious  people,"  said  Penn  in  this  letter. 

The  next  year  Penn    himself  came  to  America  in  the 

1  See  Elson's  "  History,"  p.  154. 

2  The  charter  reserved  to  the  king  the  power  to  veto  the  laws,  and  to  the 
Parliament  the  right  to  tax  the  people  of  the  colony.     This  latter  became  sig 
nificant  at  the  approach  of  the  Revolution. 


104      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

ship  Welcome.  The  passengers  numbered  about  a  hundred, 
one  third  of  whom  died  of  smallpox  on  the  ocean.  The 
proprietor  sailed  up  the  Delaware  to  the  site  of  Phila 
delphia,  where  he  found  a  small  Swedish  village  and  a 
Lutheran  church.1  Here  he  decided  to  build  a  city  and 
make  it  the  capital  of  his  province.  Purchasing  the  land 
of  the  Swedes,  he  laid  out  the  streets  in  the  spring  of 
1683.  The  growth  of  Philadelphia  was  phenomenal.  In 
less  than  four  years  it  had  passed  New  York,  which  had 
been  founded  sixty  years.  For  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years  thereafter  Philadelphia  was  the  largest  city  in 
America.  It  is  now  third  in  size,  New  York  and  Chicago 
having  passed  it. 

The  Penn  Treaty ;  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line. —  Soon  after 
founding  Philadelphia  Penn  made  his  famous  treaty  with 
the  Indians.  The  place  was  a  few  miles  north  of  the  city 
on  the  bank  of  the  Delaware  at  a  place  called  Shacka- 
maxon.  The  treaty  was  merely  a  verbal  agreement  and  it 
was  kept  inviolate  for  many  years.  Penn  addressed  the 
Indians  as  brothers,  and  they  answered  that  they  "  would 
live  in  love  with  William  Penn  and  his  children  as  long  as 
the  sun  and  moon  give  light."  It  was  said  that  for  many 
years  when  an  Indian  wished  to  pay  the  highest  compli 
ment  to  a  white  man,  he  would  say,  "  He  is  like  William 
Penn." 

No  other  colony  had  so  much  trouble  in  fixing  its  boun 
dary  lines  as  Pennsylvania.  The  charter  was  not  clear 
on  this  point  and  a  dispute  arose  between  Penn  and 
Lord  Baltimore  concerning  the  line  between  Pennsylvania 
and  Maryland.  This  was  continued  till  long  after  Penn 
and  Baltimore  were  in  their  graves.  Finally  two  sur- 

1  This  church,  known  as  Wicaco,  is  still  standing  and  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  landmarks  of  Philadelphia. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  GROWTH  OF  PENNSYLVANIA     105 

veyors,  Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  were  brought 
from  England  to  survey  the  line.  They  completed  the 
work  in  1767,  and  the  line  which  afterward  became  famous 
as  a  boundary  between  the  free  and  slave  states  has  always 
been  known  as  Mason  and  Dixon's  line. 

Government  and  Growth  of  Pennsylvania.  —  William 
Penn  gave  to  his  colonists  practically  all  power  in  the 
government.  The  people  elected  the  assembly  and  council 
and  through  them  made  all  the  laws.  Pennsylvania  was 
by  no  means  an  exclusive  home  for  Quakers.  Swedes, 
Germans,  Dutchmen,  and  Scots  came  in  considerable 
numbers  and  they  all  found  an  open  door.  The  govern 
ment  was  based  on  the  principle  of  human  equality,  and  no 
American  colony  was  more  truly  democratic.  The  growth 
of  Pennsylvania  was  more  rapid  than  that  of  any  other 
colony.  Penn  remained  but  two  years  on  his  first  visit  to 
his  colony,  and  when,  in  1699,  ne  again  crossed  the  Atlantic, 
he  found  twenty  thousand  people  in  his  fast-growing 
province.  Still  they  came  and,  though  Pennsylvania  was 
the  last  of  the  colonies  to  be  founded  except  Georgia,  it 
ranked  third  in  population  at  the  end  of  the  colonial  era. 

SUMMARY 

The  thirteen  colonies  are  divided  into  three  groups.  Southern,  New 
England,  and  Middle.  All  except  two  —  New  York  and  Delaware  — 
were  settled  by  Englishmen. 

New  York,  first  called  New  Amsterdam,  was  settled  by  the  Dutch 
(1623)  and  was  governed  by  them  for  forty-one  years.  The  whole 
province  claimed  by  the  Dutch,  from  the  Chesapeake  to  the  Connecticut 
River,  was  known  as  New  Netherland.  The  Dutch  surrendered  to  the 
English  in  1664.  Only  after  the  fall  of  Andros  did  New  York  attain 
self-government. 

New  Jersey  was  ceded  by  the  Duke  of  York  to  Lord  Berkeley  and 
George  Carteret.  First  settlements  made  at  Elizabeth  and  Newark. 


106      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

The  colony  was  divided  into  East  and  West  Jersey,  the  Quakers  getting 
control  of  the  latter.  New  Jersey  became  a  royal  colony  in  1702,  and 
for  thirty-six  years  had  a  common  governor  with  New  York.  The 
settlers  were  nearly  all  farmers. 

Delaware  was  settled  by  the  Swedes  in  1638,  and  in  1655  was  con 
quered  by  the  Dutch.  The  colony  became  English  with  the  conquest 
of  New  Netherland  (1664).  It  was  afterward  sold  to  William  Penn 
and  was  joined  to  Pennsylvania,  so  continuing  to  the  time  of  the 
Revolution. 

Pennsylvania.  —  The  charter  for  Pennsylvania  was  granted  to  William 
Penn,  a  Quaker,  in  1681.  Penn  came  in  1682,  and  the  next  year  founded 
Philadelphia  and  made  his  treaty  with  the  Indians.  He  gave  nearly  all 
governing  power  to  the  people.  The  colony  grew  faster  than  any  other 
had  done,  and  Philadelphia  soon  became  the  largest  city  in  America. 
The  colony  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Penns  to  the  end  of  the 
colonial  era. 

NOTES 

The  Walking  Purchase.  —  One  of  the  most  singular  of  bargains  made  with  the 
Indians  was  made  by  William  Penn  and  was  known  as  the  Walking  Purchase.  By 
this  he  was  to  receive  a  tract  of  land  extending  as  far  from  the  Delaware  as  a  man 
could  walk  in  three  days.  He  and  a  few  friends  and  some  Indians  walked  about 
thirty  miles  in  a  day  and  a  half,  and  as  he  needed  no  more  land  just  then,  the 
matter  was  left  to  be  finished  at  some  future  time.  In  1733,  long  after  Penn's 
death,  the  other  day  and  a  half  was  walked  out  in  a  different  spirit.  The  white  men 
employed  the  three  fastest  walkers  that  could  be  found,  offering  each  five  hundred 
acres  of  land.  One  of  them  died  on  the  journey  ;  another  was  injured  for  life,  but 
the  third,  a  man  named  Marshall,  walked  over  sixty  miles  in  the  day  and  a  half,  to 
the  great  chagrin  of  the  Indians. 

William  Penn  was  born  in  1644,  the  year  that  George  Fox,  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
began  preaching.  While  a  student  at  Oxford,  Penn  fell  in  with  the  Quakers  and 
was  expelled  from  college.  He  was  imprisoned  on  various  occasions,  once  for 
preaching  in  the  streets  of  London.  Admiral  Penn  stormed  at  his  son  for  becom 
ing  a  Quaker,  but  without  effect.  History  furnishes  few  men  so  utterly  incorrupt 
ible  as  was  Penn.  When  on  the  threshold  of  manhood,  every  inducement  was 
held  out  to  him,  every  blandishment  of  wealth  and  station,  to  lead  him  to  choose  a 
life  of  pleasure  and  royal  favor ;  but  he  cast  all  aside  and  chose  the  society  of  a 
despised  people,  purely  for  conscience'  sake.  No  allurements  of  Pharaoh's  court, 
no  threats  of  an  angry  father,  or  frowning  prison  walls  could  change  his  purpose. 
Thirty-seven  years  elapsed  from  the  time  he  received  the  Pennsylvania  charter  to 
his  death.  He  spent  but  four  of  these  years  in  Pennsylvania,  yet  we  think  of  him  as 
almost  as  truly  an  American  as  Franklin  or  Washington.  The  last  years  of  Penn's 
life  were  full  of  bitterness.  He  lost  his  fortune,  he  lost  his  wife  and  eldest  son,  and 


WILLIAM    PENN  IO/ 

he  was  arrested  in  England  on  a  charge  of  treason,  but  acquitted.  During  the 
last  few  years  of  his  life  he  was  a  helpless  paralytic.  He  died  in  1718  at  the  age  of 
seventy-four.  He  bequeathed  his  province  to  his  three  surviving  sons,  who  with 
their  successors,  held  it  till  after  the  Revolution. 


REFERENCES 

Elson,  "  History  of  the  United  States  "  ;  Thwaites,  "  The  Colonies  "  ; 
Lodge,  "Short  History";  Bryant  and  Gay,  "  Popular  History.1'  For 
longer  accounts  see  Fiske,  "  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies  "  ;  Bancroft, 
"  History  "  ;  Roberts,  "  New  York  "  (American  Commonwealth  Series) . 


CHAPTER   VII 
STRUGGLE  FOR  A  CONTINENT 

SPAIN,  as  we  have  noticed,  laid  claim  to  North  America 
by  right  of  discovery  and  exploration  and  on  account  of 
the  Pope's  decree ;  but  Spain  was  too  weak  to  hold  it, 
except  certain  portions,  especially  after  the  defeat  of  the 
Armada,  in  1588.  France  and  England  then  became 
rival  claimants.1  Their  claims  conflicted,  and  the  result 
was  a  contest,  covering  many  years,  for  the  possession  of 
the  continent.  This  contest  is  sometimes  called  the  Hun 
dred  Years'  War. 

FRENCH  EXPLORERS  AND  SETTLEMENTS 

Champlain.  --  Before  the  founding  of  Jamestown  the 
French  had  begun  to  settle  in  Canada.  The  first  perma 
nent  French  settlement  in  Canada  was  at  Quebec,  on  the 
St.  Lawrence,  founded  by  Champlain  in  1608. 

The  next  year  Champlain  discovered  and  explored  the 
beautiful  lake  that  bears  his  name.  Here  on  the  banks  of 
this  lake  Champlain  made  a  blunder  which  no  doubt  had 
much  to  do  with  bringing  about  the  downfall  of  his  nation 
in  America  in  later  years.  While  exploring  with  a  band 
of  Algonquin  Indians,  Champlain  attacked  and  routed  a 
band  of  Iroquois.  The  Algonquins  and  Iroquois2  had 
been  bitter  enemies  for  generations,  and  from  this  time 

1  For  the  grounds  of  each  country's  claim,  see  note  on  p.  35. 

2  For  a  notice  of  these  tribes,  see  pp.  32  and  33. 

108 


MARQUETTE  AND   JOLIET  109 

the  powerful  Iroquois  tribes  were  hostile  to  the  French. 
On  this  account  the  French  found  it  impossible  to  occupy 
northern  New  York  and  the  Hudson  Valley.  They  there 
fore  moved  westward  and  occupied  the  region  of  the  Great 
Lakes. 

Marquette  and  Joliet.  —  For  many  years  after  the  found 
ing  of  Quebec  bold  Frenchmen  —  soldiers,  adventurers, 
fur  traders,  and  priests  —  roamed  through  the  lake  region, 
making  new  discoveries  and  preaching  the  Gospel  to  the 
Indians. 

Among  the  most  notable  of  these  were  the  two  Jesuit 
priests,  Marquette  and  Joliet.  These  two,  with  a  few  com 
panions,  set  out,  in  1673,  for  the  treeless  plains  of  Illinois  and 
the  great  river  flowing  southward,  of  which  they  had  heard. 
They  reached  the  Mississippi  and  floated  with  its  current 
for  hundreds  of  miles,  probably  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Arkansas.  They  then  returned  as  far  northward  as  the 
Illinois  River,  ascended  it,  and  crossed  the  country  to  Lake 
Michigan.  From  there  Joliet  hastened  back  to  Canada  to 
tell  the  story  of  their  wanderings  and  Marquette  remained 
in  the  wilderness  to  preach  to  the  savages.  His  dead  body 
was  afterward  found  kneeling  by  a  rude  altar  of  his  own 
making. 

La  Salle.  —  Still  greater  were  the  journeys  of  the 
dauntless  Frenchman  La'  Salle.  In  1682,  the  year  of 
the  founding  of  Philadelphia  by  Penn,  La  Salle  floated 
down  the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth,  took  possession  of  the 
great  central  valley  of  the  continent  in  the  name  of  France, 
and  named  it  Louisiana  in  honor  of  King  Louis  -XIV. 

La  Salle  had  conceived  the  idea  of  holding  the  great 
basin  for  France  by  means  of  forts.  He  returned  to  France 
and  induced  his  king  to  plant  a  colony  in  Louisiana.  With 
four  vessels  he  sailed  for  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  missing 


110      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  he  landed  on  the  shore  of 
Texas.  Most  of  his  followers  returned  to  France,  but  the 
gallant  leader,  with  a  few  companions,  remained  and  built 
a  fort.  Strife  soon  arose  among  them,  and  La  Salle  was 
killed  by  two  of  his  countrymen.  Thus  perished  one  of 
the  greatest  of  American  explorers,  one  whose  name,  next 
to  that  of  De  Soto,  will  ever  be  linked  with  the  greatest  of 
American  rivers. 

THREE  EARLY  WARS 

French  Canada  grew  steadily,  but  slowly,  between  the 
time  of  Champlain  and  the  death  of  La  Salle.  Settle 
ments  were  scattered  here  and  there  along  the  St.  Law 
rence  and  the  Great  Lakes,  the  settlers  being  chiefly 
missionaries  or  fur  traders. 

The  English  and  French  in  North  America  were  not  on 
friendly  terms,  and  whenever  a  war  broke  out  between 
France  and  England,  it  was  sure  to  extend  to  America. 

King  William's  War,  1690-1697.  —  When  William  and 
Mary  came  to  the  throne  of  England,  in  1689,  the  French 
king  declared  in  favor  of  James,  the  dethroned  English 
monarch,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  France.  A  war  soon 
followed.  In  America  it  began  by  a  series  of  Indian  mas 
sacres,  brought  on  by  French  agitators.  Dover,  New 
Hampshire,  was  attacked  at  dead  of  night.  The  town 
was  burned  and  most  of  the  inhabitants  murdered.  The 
same  fate  befell  Pemaquid,  Maine,  Schenectady,  New 
York,  and  other  towns.1  This  was  in  1690,  at  the  time 

1  Many  were  the  heroic  deeds  of  those  days  of  savage  warfare.  One  of 
the  most  notable  was  that  of  Hannah  Dustin,  the  wife  of  a  farmer  near  Haver- 
hill,  Massachusetts.  She  saw  her  home  burned  by  the  savages,  and  her  infant 
child  dashed  to  death  against  a  tree,  while  she  and  a  neighbor  named  Mary 
Neff  were  carried  away  captive.  It  was  not  long  till  she  planned  her  escape. 


QUEEN   ANNE'S    WAR,    1702-1713  in 

when  Jacob  Leisler  had  control  of  New  York,  as  we 
noticed  in  our  account  of  that  colony. 

This  same  year  Sir  William  Phipps  captured  Port  Royal, 
in  Nova  Scotia,  and  then  led  a  naval  expedition  against 
Quebec.  A  land  force  was  at  the  same  time  sent  against 
Montreal.  Both  failed,  and  at  the  coming  of  peace  in 
1697  nothing  had  been  settled.  Port  Royal  was  given 
back  to  the  French. 

Queen  Anne's  War,  1702-1713.  — The  next  of  the  colonial 
wars  is  known  as  Queen  Anne's  War,  because  Anne,  the 
sister  of  Queen  Mary,  was  then  the  sovereign  of  England. 
The  war  first  broke  out  in  Europe  from  causes  that  we 
need  not  notice. 

In  America  it  began  in  the  usual  way  —  with  Indian 
massacres.  Deerfield,  Massachusetts,  was  one  of  the  first 
towns  to  suffer.  On  a  cold  morning  in  February,  1704, 
the  town  was  attacked  by  several  hundred  French  and 
Indians ;  many  of  the  people  were  slain,  and  others  were 
carried  into  captivity.1  Port  Royal,  Nova  Scotia,  was  again 
captured  by  the  English  after  a  third  trial  and  was  now 
named  Annapolis,  in  honor  of  Queen  Anne. 

A  great  fleet,  bearing  twelve  hundred  men,  was  then 
fitted  out  for  the  capture  of  Quebec.  It  sailed  from 

To  prevent  being  followed,  and  to  avenge  the  murder  of  her  babe,  she  reached 
a  desperate  resolve.  Twelve  Indians,  nine  of  whom  were  men,  lay  asleep 
about  them  when  she  and  her  companion  and  a  boy,  who  was  also  a  captive, 
rose  at  midnight,  and,  with  well-directed  blows,  killed  ten  of  them,  sparing 
only  a  squaw  and  a  boy,  made  their  escape,  and  returned  to  their  homes. 

1  Among  the  captives  were  the  minister,  Williams,  his  wife,  and  five  children. 
Mrs.  Williams  soon  perished  by  the  tomahawk.  The  rest  were  afterward  res 
cued,  except  a  seven-year-old  daughter.  Many  years  later  a  white  woman  in 
Indian  garb  appeared  at  Deerfield.  It  proved  to  be  the  daughter  of  Mr. 
Williams.  She  had  married  a  Mohawk  chief.  Her  friends  besought  her  to 
remain  with  them  ;  but  her  heart  was  with  her  dusky  husband  and  half-breed 
children;  she  refused  to  remain  with  the  friends  of  her  childhood. 


112      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Boston  with  high  hopes  in  August,  1711,  but  the  effort  came 
to  nothing  and  Canada  was  not  conquered.  In  1713  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  made,  and  by  it  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
foundland  came  finally  into  the  possession  of  the  English. 

King  George's  War,  1644-1648.  —  Thirty  years  passed 
between  the  close  of  Queen  Anne's  War  and  the  third  of 
the  colonial  wars,  known  as  King  George's  War,  because 
George  II  was  then  king  of  England.  During  that  period 
of  thirty  years,  the  French  built  a  powerful  fortress  on  Cape 
Breton  Island,  in  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and 
called  it  Louisburg. 

But  the  French  did  not  stop  at  this.  To  make  good 
their  claim  to  the  Mississippi  Valley  they  built  a  chain  of 
forts  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  about  sixty  in  all. 
They  also  planted  several  colonies  on  the  gulf  coast.  In 
1718  they  founded  New  Orleans. 

King  George's  War,  as  it  was  known  in  America,  was  one 
of  those  dreadful  European  conflicts  of  the  eighteenth  cen 
tury,  which  involved  most  of  the  nations  of  Europe.  Again 
we  find  France  and  England  on  opposite  sides,  and  again 
was  the  European  conflict  reflected  in  America. 

The  one  great  event  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  was  the 
capture  of  the  great  French  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  Louisburg  was  by  far  the  most  powerful 
fortress  in  America.  It  had  cost  $6,000,000  and  was 
twenty  years  in  building.  A  hundred  cannons  frowned 
from  its  walls.  To  reduce  this  fort  a  fleet  of  a  hundred 
vessels  sailed  from  Boston  in  the  spring  of  1745.  After  a 
fierce  bombardment  of  six  weeks,  the  French  surrendered, 
and  the  British  flag  soon  waved  over  the  walls  of  Louisburg. 

The  colonists  were  proud  of  their  great  victory;  but 
imagine  their  chagrin  when,  on  the  coming  of  peace,  in 
1748,  Louisburg  was  coolly  given  back  to  France.  This 


THE   OHIO    VALLEY  113 

giving  back  of  the  great  prize  won  by  the  Americans  was 
one  of  the  first  events  by  which  they  were  led  to  see  that 
American  affairs  should  be  settled  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  not  by  a  power  three  thousand  miles  away. 

THE  FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR 

The  three  wars  we  have  noticed  were  but  skirmishes 
compared  with  the  greater  one  that  was  to  follow.  This 
last  of  the  colonial  wars  is  usually  termed  the  French  and 
Indian  War,  because  most  of  the  Indians  were  united  with 
the  French  in  fighting  the  English.  The  three  wars  had 
settled  nothing.  The  first  subject  of  dispute  after  the  close 
of  the  last  war  was  the  bounds  of  Acadia,  or  Nova  Scotia, 
which  now  belonged  to  England.  The  French  declared  that 
Acadia  comprised  the  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  alone, 
while  the  English  claimed  a  large  part  of  the  mainland  as 
belonging  to  Nova  Scotia. 

The  Ohio  Valley.  —  While  this  question  remained  un 
settled,  a  more  important  one  arose  —  concerning  the 
ownership  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  The  French  claimed  this 
great  fertile  region  as  a  part  of  the  discoveries  of  Marquette 
and  La  Salle.  The  English  claimed  it  as  a  part  of  Vir 
ginia,  granted  by  the  early  charters  (based  on  the  Cabot 
discoveries).  Another  ground  of  the  English  claim  was 
that  the  territory  was  claimed  by  the  Iroquois,  who  were 
acknowledged  to  be  British  subjects. 

Each  country  began  to  move  toward  occupying  this  vast 
region.  The  French  sent  a  small  company  of  men  down 
the  Allegheny  and  Ohio  rivers  to  take  possession  of  the 
country.  The  English  formed  the  Ohio  Company  and 
King  George  granted  it  half  a  million  acres  between  the 
Monongahela  and  Kanawha  rivers,  on  the  condition  that 
i 


114      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

the  company  make  a  settlement  and  build  a  fort  in  the 
territory. 

First  Public  Service  of  Washington.  —  Soon  after  the 
Ohio  Company  was  formed  the  French  made  an  important 
move.  They  began  building  forts  in  what  is  now  north 
western  Pennsylvania.  One  of  these.,  named  Fort  Le 


WASHINGTON  RETURNING  FROM  FORT  LE  BCEUF 

Boeuf,  about  twenty  miles  from  the  present  city  of  Erie, 
was  put  under  the  command  of  Saint-Pierre. 

This  move  of  the  French  alarmed  Governor  Dinwiddie 
of  Virginia,1  who  claimed  that  territory  as  part  of  Virginia. 
The  governor  therefore  determined  to  send  a  messenger  to 
Saint-Pierre  to  inform  him  that  the  entire  Allegheny 
Valley  belonged  to  Virginia.  When  asked  whom  he  would 

1  Dinwiddie  was  the  lieutenant  governor,  the  nominal  governor  resided 
in  England. 


M.VP   OK   THE 

MIDDLE  COLONIES 

JUST  BEFORE   THE 
FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR 


N     N     S     Y "'i±'1'  V 


- 


77"        Longitude  West  76°  from  Greenwich          75" 


A   VIEW   OF   THE   TWO   PEOPLES  115 

send,  the  governor  replied,  "  I  shall  send  George  Washing 
ton  ;  he  is  very  young,  but  he  is  the  bravest  man  in  the 
colony." 

George  Washington  was  a  young  surveyor  of  twenty-one 
years.1  He  was  not  only  brave  and  stalwart ;  he  was 
especially  noted  for  his  moral  character  and  his  fidelity  to 
truth  and  duty.  With  a  companion  named  Christopher 
Gist,  a  famous  woodman,  Washington  started  on  his  peril 
ous  journey  late  in  the  year  1753.  Over  hills  and  moun 
tains,  swamps,  marshes,  and  frozen  rivers  he  carried  the 
letter  of  Virginia's  governor.  Reaching  Fort  Le  Boeuf, 
he  delivered  the  message  and  set  out  with  Gist  to  return  on 
foot  at  dead  of  winter.  While  attempting  to  cross  the 
Allegheny  River  on  a  raft,  Washington  was  thrown  into 
the  icy  waters.  Regaining  the  raft,  he  reached  an  island, 
where  they  spent  a  bitterly  cold  night.  Next  morning  the 
river  was  frozen  solid  and  they  crossed  on  the  ice.  In 
January,  1754,  the  young  surveyor  reported  to  the  governor, 
after  an  absence  of  seventy-eight  days. 

A  View  of  the  Two  Peoples.  —  The  French  refused  to 
vacate  the  Allegheny  Valley,  and  the  year  after  Washing 
ton  made  his  journey  they  moved  down  the  river  and  built 
Fort  Duquesne  (doo  kane)  on  the  site  of  Pittsburg.  It  was 
now  evident  that  there  would  be  war,  and  that  this  war 
would  decide  which  of  the  two  great  nations  would  become 
dominant  in  North  America. 

The  English  occupied  but  a  narrow  margin  of  the 
continent  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  scarcely  more  than 
a  hundred  miles  wide,  from  Maine  to  Georgia.  The 
French  were  thinly  scattered  over  a  territory  twenty 
times  as  great  as  that  occupied  by  the  English ;  but 

1  See  "  Early  Life  of  Washington,"  pp.  125,  126. 


Il6      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF    THE   UNITED    STATES 

the  English  population  was  twenty  times  as  great  as  the 
French.1 

The  English  had  come  to  America  to  build  homes  and 
to  secure  religious  freedom  and  happy  family  life.  The 
French  came  to  convert  the  Indians  to  -Christianity,  to 
engage  in  the  fur  trade,  and  to  build  up  a  great  new  France. 
The  English  would  build  up  a  new  England  by  migrating 
in  large  numbers;  the  French  would  build  up  a  new 
France,  not  by  coming  in  large  numbers,  but  by  making 
Frenchmen  of  the  Indians. 

The  French  treated  the  Indians  as  brethren,  adopted 
their  customs,  and  often  married  into  their  tribes.  The 
English,  on  the  other  hand,  though  often  friendly  with  the 
red  men,  never  received  them  as  of  their  own  class,  never 
adopted  their  customs  nor  invited  their  confidence.  More 
over,  the  French  wanted  furs,  which  the  Indians  were  ever 
willing  to  furnish,  while  the  English  wanted  land,  which 
the  Indians  were  unwilling  to  give. 

The  result  of  all  this  was  that  the  Indians  took  the 
side  of  the  French  —  except  the  Iroquois  who  had  been 
embittered  against  the  French  by  Champlain  many  years 
before.2 

Again,  the  English  and  French  differed  greatly  in  their 
religion  and  forms  of  government.  The  French  were  all 
Roman  Catholics  and  they  were  wholly  without  self -govern 
ment.  They  were  governed  entirely  by  the  will  of  their 
king.  The  English  were  Protestants ;  they  were  self-gov 
erning  and  the  colonies  were  wholly  separated  from  one  an 
other.  Herein  lay  the  one  great  weakness  of  the  English  ; 
they  could  not  act  together,  while  the  French  were  a  unit 
and  ready  to  move  at  their  king's  command. 

1  The  English  population  exceeded  1,200,000 ;  the  French  was  about  60,000. 

2  See  p.  108. 


THE   ALBANY   CONGRESS 


117 


The  Albany  Congress.  —  The  far-sighted  Franklin  saw 
this  weakness  and  at  a  colonial  Congress,  held  at  Albany, 
New  York,  in  1/54,  he  brought  forward  a  plan  of  union. 
But  this  plan  was  rejected  by  the  English  king  because  it 
gave  too  much  power  to  the  people,  and  by  the  colonists 
because  it  gave  too  much  power  to  the  king.  The  result 
was  that  the  English  plunged  into  this  war  without  union, 
and  the  outcome  was  disaster  to  the  English  and  success  to 
the  French  during  the  first  two  or  three  years  of  the  war. 

The  Four  Objective  Points.  —  At 
the  opening  of  the  war  the  French 
were  in  possession  of  four  impor 
tant  points  which  the  English  felt 
that  they  must  capture  in  order 
to  win  in  the  great  contest.  These 
four  points  were  as  follows :  — 

i.  Fort  Duquesne,  where  Pitts- 
burg  now  stands,  the  key  to  the 
Ohio  Valley.  2.  Fort  Niagara, 
which  controlled  the  fur  trade  of 
the  lake  region.  3.  Ticonderoga 
and  Crown  Point,  which  controlled 

the  route  from  New  York  to  Canada.     4.  Louisburg,  the 
gateway  to  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley  and  the  city  of  Quebec. 

Braddock's  Defeat  at  Fort  Duquesne.  —  One  Sunday  in 
February,  1755,  a  British  general  of  stately  bearing  and 
in  bright  uniform  came  to  the  home  of  Governor  Dinwiddie 
in  Virginia.  "  He  is,  I  think,  a  very  fine  officer.  .  .  . 
He  and  I  live  in  great  harmony,"  wrote  the  governor  to  a 
friend.  It  was  General  Edward  Braddock,  who  had  been 
sent  from  England  to  conduct  the  war  against  the  French. 

Three  months  later  General  Braddock  with  a  motley 
army  of  thirteen  hundred  men  was  marching  over  the 


GENERAL  BRADDOCK 


Il8      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE  UNITED    STATES 

mountains  toward  Fort  Duquesne.  The  line  of  march  was 
four  miles  long  and  the  men  made  the  woods  ring  with  their 
shouts  and  music.  The  young  surveyor,  George  Wash 
ington,  was  a  member  of  Braddock's  staff.  Washington 
cautioned  the  general  against  the  Indian  mode  of  warfare ; 
but  Braddock  refused  to  heed  the  warning.  He  is  said 
to  have  exclaimed,  "  High  times  when  a  buckskin  boy 


THE  FALL  OF  BRADDOCK 

assumes  to  advise  a  British  officer."1  As  the  army 
approached  the  French  fort  it  was  met  by  several  hundred 
French  and  Indians,  who  opened  a  murderous  fire  from 
behind  trees  and  underbrush.  The  British  fired  again  and 

1  The  word  "  buckskin  "  referred  to  the  buckskin  breeches  worn  by  the  colo 
nists.  The  war  had  actually  begun  the  year  before  when  Washington  with  a 
band  of  militia  fired'  on  the  French  led  by  Jumonville,  at  Great  Meadows. 
Jumonville  and  a  few  others  were  killed,  but  Washington  afterward  capitu 
lated  at  Fort  Necessity  (July  4,  1754)- 


Jf    T    I     G 


OCEAN 


MAP  OF  THE 

SOUTHERN  COLONIES 

JUST  BEFORE  THE 
FRENCH    AND    INDIAN  WAR  ^ 

SCALE  OF  MILES 

0        to       00  1'JO  1U) 

B.  4CO.,N.Y. 


DISPERSION   OF   THE   ACADIANS  119 

again  at  their  invisible  enemy.  Braddock  galloped  to  and 
fro  with  great  gallantry  amid  the  hail  of  bullets,  cheering 
his  men.  For  three  hours  the  English  stood  the  slaughter. 
Three  fourths  of  them  were  cut  down  when  Braddock 
ordered  a  retreat.  Four  horses  had  been  shot  under  him 
and  he  mounted  a  fifth,  when  a  bullet  was  buried  in  his 
lungs ;  he  pitched  from  his  horse  and  lay  quivering  and 
speechless  on  the  ground.  The  ruined  army  was  soon  in 
full  retreat.  Four  days  later  General  Braddock  died.  His 
body  was  buried  in  the  middle  of  the  road,  as  he  had 
requested,  and  lest  the  spot  be  discovered  by  the  Indians, 
the  army  —  men,  horses,  and  wagons  —  passed  over  his 
grave. 

Dispersion  of  the  Acadians.  —  Nova  Scotia,  known  to  the 
French  as  Acadia,  had  become  an  English  possession  at 
the  close  of  Queen  Anne's  War.  But  the  inhabitants  were 
French,  some  seventeen  thousand  in  all.  They  were  an 
ignorant,  industrious  people,  who  lived  apart  from  the  rest 
of  the  world.  They  refused  to  acknowledge  the  British 
king  as  their  sovereign  and  fostered  a  spirit  of  hostility  to 
the  English.  After  bearing  with  them  for  many  years  the 
English  decided  on  a  harsh  measure  —  nothing  less  than 
the  removal  by  force  of  the  Acadians  from  their  homes 
and  scattering  them  among  the  English  colonies. 

An  expedition  commanded  by  Colonel  Monckton 
reached  Acadia  from  Boston  early  in  June,  1 75  5  —  about  five 
weeks  before  the  defeat  of  Braddock  at  Fort  Duquesne. 
The  cruel  business  was  soon  begun.  The  simple  natives 
were  crowded  into  British  ships,  families  usually  being  kept 
together,  and  launched  for  unknown  shores,  while  the  low 
ing  of  herds  and  howling  of  dogs  could  alone  be  heard  from 
the  desolate  farms  so  lately  the  scene  of  peace  and  plenty. 
The  Acadians  were  scattered  from  New  Haven  to  Georgia 


120      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Some  of  them  afterward  found  their  way  back  to  Acadia ; 
others  went  to  Louisiana,  where  their  descendants  are  still 
to  be  found  ;  but  the  majority  remained  among  the  English 
and  never  again  met  their  kindred  from  whom  they  had 
been  separated.1 

Two  other  expeditions  for  1755  were  undertaken  by  the 
English.  One  of  these,  against  Fort  Niagara,  resulted  in 

failure ;  the  other,  against 
Crown  Point,  was  success 
ful.  In  a  battle  near  Lake 
George,  the  French  com 
mander  was  defeated  and 
slain.  This  was  the  only 
British  success  of  the  year. 
Declaration  of  War.— All 
that  we  have  related  took 
place  before  war  was  de 
clared  between  France  and 
England  ;  but  in  the  spring 
of  1756  each  nation  de 
clared  war  against  the 
other. 

MONTCALM  The  years  1 756  and  1 757 

witnessed  little  change  in 

the  situation.  In  1 756  Colonel  John  Armstrong  with  a  band 
of  three  hundred  men  destroyed  the  Indian  town  of  Kit- 
tanning  on  the  Allegheny  River,  and  the  next  year  Lord 
Loudon,  who  had  become  the  British  commander,  led  a 
fleet  against  the  strong  French  fort,  Louisburg ;  but  he 

1  About  six  thousand  of  the  Acadians  were  deported,  more  than  ten  thou 
sand  having  evaded  the  English  by  escaping  to  the  forests.  The  teacher 
should  see  that  the  pupils  read  Longfellow's  "  Evangeline "  in  connection 
with  this  story. 


WILLIAM    PITT  121 

failed  to  capture  it.  Meantime  the  French  had  found  a 
great  commander  in  the  person  of  Marquis  de  Montcalm. 
While  Lbudon  was  proceeding  to  Louisburg,  Montcalm 
stole  through  the  forests  of  northern  New  York  with  an 
army  and  captured  Fort  William  Henry,  on  the  banks  of 
Lake  George,  after  a  bloody  siege. 

Three  years  had  now  passed  since  the  beginning  of  the 
war  and  the  English  had  met  with  disaster  on  every  side. 
Not  an  English  fort  or  settlement  could  now  be  found  in 
the  Ohio  Valley  or  the  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  But 
this  was  all  to  be  changed  in  the  years  that  followed,  and 
the  change  was  to  be  effected  by  one  great  man. 

William  Pitt.  —  The  greatest  Englishman  of  his  gener 
ation  was  William  Pitt,  later  known  as  the  Earl  of  Chatham. 
Pitt,  as  a  member  of  the  English  Cabinet,  came  in  control 
of  the  war  in  1757.  The  next  year  he  planned  and  accom 
plished  great  things.  He  sent  a  powerful  fleet,  bearing  an 
army  under  General  Amherst,  to  capture  Louisburg. "  For 
many  weeks  the  bombardment  was  terrific.  At  last  the 
French  raised  the  white  flag  and  for  the  second  time  this 
great  French  stronghold  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
passed  into  English  hands. 

Another  army,  led  by  General  Forbes,  assisted  by 
George  Washington,  was  sent  by  way  of  Pennsylvania 
against  Fort  Duquesne.^  When  they  reached  the  place, 
they  found  only  smoking  ruins.  The  French  had  fired  the 
fort  and  fled,  and  this  key  to  the  Ohio  Valley,  which  had 
cost  Braddock  and  his  army  so  dearly,  was  now  secured 
without  a  blow.  The  place  was  then  named  Pittsburg  in 
honor  of  William  Pitt,  the  great  Englishman  who  had  in 
spired  the  expedition. 

One  more  English  success  marked  the  year  1758  —  the 
capture  of  Fort  Frontenac  at  the  head  of  the  St.  Lawrence ; 


122      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

and  one  failure  —  the  defeat  of  a  large  British  army  at 
Ticonderoga  by  Montcalm.  On  the  whole,  the  year  was 
very  successful  to  British  arms,  and  Pitt  now  determined 
on  a  great  project,  no  less  than  the  conquest  of  all  Canada. 
Fall  of  Quebec.  —  Various  expeditions  were  planned  for 
1759,  the  most  important  of  which  was  for  the  capture 
of  Quebec.  To  effect  this  Pitt  sent  an  army  under  James 

Wolfe,  who  had  been  with  Am- 
herst  the  year  before  in  the  cap 
ture  of  Louisburg. 

It  was  late  in  June  when  the 
British  army  stood  before  the  city 
of  Quebec,  which  was  guarded 
by  Montcalm.  The  summer 
passed  and  nothing  was  yet  ac 
complished.  At  length  in  Sep 
tember  Wolfe  determined  to  scale 
the  heights  that  led  to  a  plateau 

overlooking  the  city  and  known 
GENERAL  WOLFE 

as  the  Plains  of  Abraham.     This 

had  been  left  unguarded  because  it  was  supposed  to  be 
inaccessible  from  the  river.  After  a  painful  night  of  toil 
the  English  gained  the  heights  from  which  they  could 
throw  shells  over  the  city.  A  fierce  battle  ensued.  The 
English  won  and  captured  Quebec,  but  they  lost  their 
brave  commander.  General  Wolfe  was  among  the  slain. 
Montcalm  also  received  a  mortal  wound.1 

The  war  ended  soon  after  the  fall  of  Quebec.     Fort 

1  The  death  of  Wolfe  was  strangely  similar  to  that  of  Montcalm.  After 
receiving  a  mortal  wound  Wolfe  was  informed  that  the  French  were  in  full 
flight,  whereupon  he  said  in  a  low,  sweet  voice,  "  Now  God  he  praised,  I  die 
happy."  When  Montcalm  was  told  by  his  physician  that  his  wound  was 
mortal,  he  said,  "  I  am  glad  of  it.  ...  I  am  happy  that  I  shall  not  live  to 
see  the  surrender  of  Quebec." 


BEFORE  THE  FRENCH  AND   INDIAN  WAR. 


AFTER  THE  FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR. 


THE   TREATY   OF   PEACE  123 

Niagara  had  already  surrendered  to  the  English,  who  thus 
gained  full  control  of  the  upper  Ohio  Valley.  Montreal 
fell  into  their  hands  the  next  year.  The  feeble  efforts  of 
the  French  to  retake  Quebec  were  fruitless.  The  war  was 
over.  France  had  lost  everything. 

The  Treaty  of  Peace. —  More  than  three  years  passed 
after  the  fall  of  Quebec  before  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed,  owing  to  the  terrific  conflict  still  raging  in  Europe, 
known  as  the  Seven  Years'  War.  Then  came  the  treaty, 
signed  in  Paris  in  1763.  France  gave  up  all  her  posses 
sions  in  the  New  World,  except  two  little  islands  in  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  a  few  in  the  West  Indies.  Eng 
land  received  Canada  and  all  of  North  America  east  of  the 
Mississippi  which  she  did  not  already  possess ;  while  to 
Spain,  which  had  also  been  involved  in  the  war,  was  ceded 
New  Orleans  and  that  vast  tract  west  of  the  Mississippi 
known  as  Louisiana. 

Results  of  the  War.  —  The  chief  results  of  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  aside  from  the  magnitude  of  the  land 
cessions,  were:  i.  The  war  made  England  the  greatest 
colonial  power  in  the  world.  2.  It  determined  the  trend 
of  future  civilization  in  North  America  —  that  the  laws, 
customs,  and  institutions  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  rather 
than  of  the  Latin  races  of  southern  Europe,  should  pre 
vail.  3.  It  trained  the  colonists  in  the  arts  of  warfare, 
taught  them  their  need  of  union,  and  lessened  their  sense 
of  dependence  on  England. 

Conspiracy  of  Pontiac.  —  The  defeat  of  the  French  left 
the  Algonquin  Indians  unprotected.  They  determined, 
therefore,  to  massacre  or  drive  away  all  the  English  west 
of  the  Alleghany  Mountains.  Led  by  a  very  able  chief 
named  Pontiac,  they  formed  a  conspiracy  to  attack,  on  the 
same  day,  all  the  English  posts  in  the  lake  region  and 


124      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

along  the  frontier  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia.  So 
exact  was  their  calculation  that  on  a  certain  day  in  June, 
1763,  determined  by  a  change  of  the  moon,  the  attacks 
were  made  almost  at  the  same  hour.  On  that  day  all  the 
English  forts  in  that  vast  region  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Indians,  except  Fort  Duquesne  (now  called  Fort  Pitt,  or 
Pittsburg),  Detroit,  and  Niagara. 

The  war  continued  at  intervals  for  three  years,  when  the 
Indians  yielded  and  agreed  to  a  treaty  of  peace.  Pontiac 
went  westward  and  at  length  perished  at  the  hand  of  one 
of  his  own  race.  He  was  buried  on  the  soil  where  St. 
Louis  afterward  rose,  and  "  the  race  whom  he  hated  with 
such  burning  rancor  trample  with  unceasing  footsteps  over 
his  forgotten  grave."  1 

SUMMARY 

Spain,  France,  and  England  were  at  first  rival  claimants  of  North 
America,  and  it  required  many  years  of  warfare  to  decide  which  should 
become  dominant. 

French  Explorers.  —  Champlain  founded  Quebec  in  1608  and  explored 
parts  of  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley.  Marquette  and  Joliet  explored  large 
portions  of  the  lake  region  and  the  Mississippi  Valley.  La  Salle 
descended  the  Mississippi  in  1682,  named  the  country  Louisiana,  and 
took  possession  for  France. 

The  three  earlier  colonial  wars  had  almost  no  effect  in  settling  the 
question  of  territorial  possession  between  France  and  England. 

The  French  and  Indian  War.  —  The  immediate  cause  was  the  claims 
of  both  France  and  England  on  the  Ohio  Valley. 

The  French  held  territory  twenty  times  as  great  as  the  English,  but 
the  French  population  was  but  one  twentieth  that  of  the  English.  The 
French  were  Catholics,  the  English  Protestants.  The  Algonquin 
Indians  sided  with  the  French,  the  Iroquois  with  the  English.  The 
French  were  governed  by  their  king,  the  English  were  almost  self- 
governing. 

The  English,  for  want  of  united  effort,  lost  steadily  for  three  years, 

1  Parkman's  "  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,"  Vol,  II,  p.  313. 


THE   TREATY   OF   PARIS  125 

after  which  William  Pitt  became  master  and  turned  defeat  into  victory. 
French  power  in  America  ceased  with  the  surrender  of  Quebec  (Sep 
tember,  1759). 

The  Treaty  of  Paris  (1763)  divided  North  America  between  England 
and  Spain,  France  having  lost  everything.  This  war  determined  the 
form  of  civilization  for  Canada  and  the  future  United  States,  made 
England  the  greatest  of  colonial  powers,  and  awakened  in  the  colonists 
a  sense  of  their  strength,  and  of  the  necessity  of  united  effort. 

NOTES 

Pontiac's  Methods.  —  The  Indians  were  very  skillful  in  surprising  the  various 
English  garrisons  on  the  fatal  day  in  June,  1763.  At  Detroit  where  Pontiac  was 
leader  in  person,  the  plan  was  for  the  warriors  to  enter  the  fort  on  a  pretended 
friendly  visit,  each  concealing  a  deadly  weapon,  and  at  a  given  signal  to  fall  upon 
the  English  and  murder  them  to  the  last  man.  But  the  plot  was  revealed  to  the 
English  by  an  Indian  girl  and  the  garrison  was  saved.  At  Michilimackinac  the 
Indians  arranged  to  play  a  game  of  ball  within  the  fort.  The  squaws  were  to  stand 
by  with  concealed  weapons.  At  a  certain  signal  the  players  ran  to  the  squaws, 
seized  the  weapons,  and  began  the  bloody  work.  The  English  were  unprepared 
and  few  of  them  escaped  alive.  At  Presque  Isle  the  garrison  surrendered  after  a 
terrible  siege  of  two  days.  Sandusky  was  captured  by  treachery,  and  every  man 
in  the  fort  was  put  to  death  except  the  commander,  Ensign  Paulli,  who  was  carried 
to  Detroit  as  a  trophy.  He  was  afterward  given  his  choice  of  two  things  —  to  be  put 
to  death,  or  to  marry  a  squaw.  He  was  not  put  to  death.  (Drake's  "Making  of 
the  Ohio  Valley  States,"  p.  76.) 

Early  Life  of  Washington.  —  Soon  after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  in  England 
in  1649  a  great  many  of  the  Cavaliers,  or  king's  party,  came  to  America  because 
they  did  not  like  the  Puritan  government.  Among  them  was  John  Washington,  a 
wealthy  man,  who  purchased  a  large  plantation  on  the  bank  of  the  Potomac  River. 
He  was  the  great-grandfather  of  George  Washington,  who  was  born  in  Virginia  on 
February  22,  1732  —  one  year  before  the  founding  of  Georgia,  and  fifty  years  after 
the  founding  of  Philadelphia.  George  Washington  had  two  half-brothers  much 
older  than  himself.  Both  were  sent  to  England  to  be  educated,  and  George  would 
have  been  sent  also  but  for  the  sad  fact  that  his  father  died  when  he  was  but 
eleven  years  old.  George  went  to  private  schools  and  had  tutors,  but  never 
attended  college.  While  yet  a  boy  he  decided  that  he  would  like  to  be  a  sailor,  in 
the  hope  that  sometime  he  would  become  an  officer  in  the  king's  navy.  His 
mother  at  length  consented  to  let  him  go.  His  trunk  was  packed  and  on  the  wharf, 
but  when  he  went  to  bid  his  mother  good-by,  he  found  her  weeping  and  so  sad 
that  he  gave  up  going  and  remained  with  her,  and  he  never  crossed  the  ocean. 
Lawrence  Washington,  who  inherited  his  father's  estate,  was  very  fond  of  his  half- 
brother  George.  He  was  a  man  of  frail  health  and  he  went  to  the  West  Indies  in 
the  hope  of  recovering,  taking  George  with  him.  Here  George  took  the  smallpox 


126      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

and  for  some  time  hovered  between  life  and  death.  Soon  after  their  return  Law 
rence  Washington  died,  leaving  George  his  entire  estate.  This  was  about  the  time 
that  Governor  Dinwiddie  sent  him  on  the  long  journey  through  the  wilderness  of 
Pennsylvania.  Thus  George  Washington  at  the  beginning  of  his  manhood  became 


MRS.  WASHINGTON  PERSUADES  GEORGE  NOT 


TO   GO  TO  bEA 


one  of  the  richest  landowners  in  America.     He  was  a  robust,  athletic  young  man 
and  could  not  be  excelled  as  a  horseman  and  marksman. 


REFERENCES 


The  general  histories  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  preceding 
chapters,  and,  most  important  of  all,  the  works  of  Francis  Parkman. 
The  various  volumes  of  Parkman  on  the  French  and  English  in  America 
are  delightfully  written,  and  the  fullest  we  have  on  this  subject. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
COLONIAL  LIFE 

WE  are  nearing  the  close  of  the  colonial  period,  and 
before  treating  of  the  conflict  which  brought  American 
independence  it  is  interesting  to  make  a  brief  study  of  life 
in  the  colonies.1  The  difference  between  our  mode  of  life 
and  that  of  colonial  days  is  very  striking  indeed.  When 
we  walk  through  our  city  streets,  we  see  street  cars  and 
automobiles  and  electric  lights  and  "  sky  scrapers,"  all  of 
which  were  unknown  to  the  colonists.  In  our  homes  we 
have  sewing  machines  and  stoves  and  coal  and  matches 
and  many  other  things  that  were  never  used  by  them.  No 
one  before  the  Revolution  ever  heard  of  a  steamboat,  or  a 
railroad,  or  a  telephone,  or  the  telegraph,  or  a  mower  and 
reaper.  These  and  scores  of  other  things  that  now  seem 
necessary  to  our  happiness  have  all  come  into  use  within 
the  past  hundred  years. 

POPULATION  AND  SOCIAL  RANK 

At  the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  the  popula 
tion  of  the  thirteen  colonies  was  about  1,600,000  —  less 
than  that  of  the  city  of  Chicago  at  present.  About  one 
fourth  of  the  people  were  negro  slaves,  and  many  of 
them  were  indented  servants.  Virginia  ranked  first  in 

1  It  is  suggested  to  the  teacher  that  this  chapter  be  studied  by  the  pupils 
with  exceptional  thoroughness.  This  chapter  is  in  part  an  abridgment  of 
Chapter  X  of  my  "  History  of  the  United  States." 

127 


A  COLONIAL  CHILD— ROBERT  GIBBS,  FOUR  AND  A  HALF  YEARS  OLD,  1670 

128 


NATIONALITIES  129 

population,  Massachusetts  came  second,  and  Pennsylvania 
third.  The  largest  city  was  Philadelphia  with  25,000 
people ;  the  only  other  cities  that  exceeded  5000  were 
Boston,  New  York,  and  Charleston.  Nearly  all  the  people 
lived  east  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains ;  in  one  colony 
only,  Pennsylvania,  had  the  settlers  crossed  the  moun 
tains  in  any  considerable  numbers. 

Nationalities.  —  In  New  England  nearly  all  the  people 
were  English,  a  few  being  Scotch-Irish.  In  the  South 
were  English,  Huguenots, 
and  Germans.  In  New 
York  the  majority  were 
Dutch ;  in  Pennsylvania 
the  Germans  and  the 
Scotch  outnumbered  the 
English,  and  in  Delaware 
there  were  many  Swedes. 
In  nearly  all  the  colonies 
there  were  some  Irish,  the 
greater  number  being  in 
the  Middle  Colonies. 

The  Slaves.  —  Social 
lines  were  strictly  drawn 
in  most  of  the  colonies 
and  the  negro  slaves  held 
the  lowest  place.  All 
the  colonies  had  slaves ; 
but  perhaps  four  fifths 
of  them  all  were  south  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line. 

In  New  England  and  the  Middle  Colonies  the  slaves 
were  for  the  most  part  domestic  servants.  They  were 
usually  well  treated  and  in  some  cases  admitted  to  the 
family  circle. 


130      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

In  Virginia  and  Maryland  the  slave  was  a  body  servant 
to  his  master,  a  domestic  servant,  or  a  plantation  laborer, 
living  a  life  of  ignorance  and  contentment  with  his  family. 
Among  these  were  mechanics  and  artisans,  trained  for 
various  duties  about  the  plantation. 

As  we  go  farther  south  we  find  a  severer  form  of  slavery. 
Here  the  blacks  were  brought  from  Africa  or  the  West  Indies 


THE  GOOD  GIRL  AND  HER  WHEEL 
From  a  child's  book  of  the  colonial  period 

in  large  numbers,  and  under  the  lash  of  the  taskmaster  they 
wore  their  lives  away  in  the  rice  swamps  in  unrequited  toil. 
Redemptioners.  —  Next  above  the  slaves  stood  the 
indented  white  servants,  composed  of  three  classes. 
i.  Criminals  thrust  on  the  colonies  by  England.  They 
escaped  imprisonment  or  death  by  a  long  period  of  service 
in  America.  2.  Waifs  from  the  streets  of  London,  sold 
by  their  inhuman  parents  or  stolen  by  cruel  traders  and 


THE   MIDDLE   CLASS  131 

sold  to  servitude  in  America.  3.  Redemptioners,  often 
called  freewillers,  who  of  their  own  free  will  engaged  to 
serve  several  years  in  the  colonies,  usually  not  more  than 
five  years,  in  payment  for  their  passage  across  the  sea. 
When  a  shipmaster  arrived  with  his  human  cargo,  he  would 
advertise  the  fact,  and  the  farmers  and  merchants  would 
come  and  bargain  with  him  for  the  services  of  the  persons 
he  had  brought.  The  freewillers,  after  serving  their  time, 
usually  merged  into  the  great  middle  class  and  became 
good  citizens. 

The  criminals  sent  to  the  colonies  were  seldom  reformed 
by  their  servitude.  Criminals  were  punished  in  various 
ways  —  by  hanging,  flogging,  ducking,  by  exposure  in  the 
pillory  or  stocks,  but  seldom  by  imprisonment. 

The  Middle  Class.  —  There  was  no  "  laboring  class  "  in 
the  colonies,  and  next  above  the  indented  servants  were 
the  small  farmers,  traders,  shopkeepers,  and  fishermen. 
These,  especially  in  the  northern  and  middle  colonies,  con 
stituted  the  great  majority  of  the  people,  the  rank  and  file, 
the  bone  and  sinew  of  the  land.  This  class  was  generally 
religious,  prosperous,  contented,  moderately  educated,  not 
highly  cultured ;  the  moral  standard  was  probably  higher 
than  in  any  other  country  in  the  world. 

The  Ruling  Class.  —  At  the  top  of  the  social  scale  stood 
the  ruling  class,  composed  in  New  England  of  the  minis 
ters,  magistrates,  and  professional  men ;  in  New  York  of 
these  classes  and,  above  all,  of  the  patroons,  or  great  land 
holders  along  the  Hudson ;  while  in  the  South  the  owners 
of  the  great  plantations  were  uppermost  in  society  and 
near  them  stood  the  professional  men. 

In  all  the  colonies  social  lines  were  more  strictly  drawn 
than  they  now  are.  In  some  colonies  the  style  of  a  lady's 
dress  was  regulated  by  law  and  no  one  was  permitted  to 


132      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

dress  "  above  his  degree."  Worshipers  in  church  and 
students  in  college  were  obliged  to  occupy  seats  according 
to  their  social  standing.  But  with  all  the  class  distinctions 
it  was  not  unusual  in  those  days,  as  at  present,  for  an  as 
piring  youth  to  rise  from  the  lower  walks  of  life  and  take 
a  place  among  the  higher  classes. 

OCCUPATIONS  AND  CUSTOMS 

Colonial  America  was  a  land  of  farmers.  When  our 
forefathers  came  to  America,  they  found  no  large  cities 
with  openings  for  the  industrious ;  they  found  only  the 
virgin  soil,  valleys,  hills,  and  boundless  plains  covered 
with  forests.  From  these  they  had  to  remove  the  timbers 
and  delve  the  soil  for  their  daily  bread.  Hence  a  nation 
of  farmers.  A  few  ministers,  doctors,  merchants,  fisher 
men  there  had  to  be,  but  the  great  body  of  the  people 
were  farmers. 

Home  Life  in  New  England.  —  The  New  England  farm 
house  was  built  solidly  of  wood.  It  contained  at  least  two 
rooms,  a  "  best  room  "  and  a  kitchen.  So  little  attention 
was  given  to  comfort  that  the  farmhouse  would  have  been 
scarcely  endurable  in  winter  but  for  the  great  open  wood 
fire.  The  kitchen  ceiling  was  often  hung  with  drying 
apples,  seed  corn,  and  various  kinds  of  herbs.  It  was  in 
the  kitchen  that  the  family  (usually  a  large  one)  would 
spend  the  evenings,  sitting  about  the  huge  wood  fire  tell 
ing  stories,  shelling  nuts,  making  brooms  and  the  like. 
The  furniture  was  plain  and  substantial,  much  of  it  being 
homemade. 

Many  of  the  rich  in  or  near  the  cities  built  fine  brick  or 
stone  mansions  and  furnished  them  with  the  best  that 
could  be  purchased  in  Europe. 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   VILLAGE  133 

The  New  England  Village.  —  The  village  in  New  Eng 
land  had  wide,  shady,  unpaved  streets,  with  many  stumps  to 
show  how  recently  they  were  cleared.  Many  of  the  farmers 
lived  close  to  the  village  so  as  to  be  near  the  church  and 


SPINNING 


the  school  and  for  better  protection  in  case  of  Indian 
attacks.  There  were  at  least  three  important  buildings  in 
every  village  —  the  church,  the  tavern,  and  the  blockhouse. 
The  people  were  summoned  to  church  by  the  sound  of 
a  horn  or  drum.  The  sermons  were  very  long  and  during 


134     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

the  service  the  tithingman  with  a  long  rod  walked  through 
the  aisles  to  keep  the  people  in  order.  If  a  man  or  boy 
fell  asleep,  he  received  a  rap  from  the  rod,  and  if  a  woman 
or  girl  fell  into  a  doze,  she  was  wakened  by  the  brushing 
of  a  rabbit's  foot  attached  to  the  rod.  In  earlier  times 
the  men  went  to  church  armed,  and  the  minister  often 
preached  with  a  musket  by  his  side. 


AN  OLD  TAVERN 

The  tavern  was  a  place  for  travelers  to  lodge  and  also 
a  place  of  general  gossip  for  the  villagers.  Here  they 
would  gather  to  take  a  social  glass  (rum,  small  beer,  or 
cider)  and  to  discuss  politics  and  religion. 

The  blockhouse  was  strongly  built  of  logs ;  the  second 
story  extended  over  the  first  and  was  provided  with  port 
holes  so  that  the  occupants  could  fire  down  on  an  enemy. 
In  case  of  an  Indian  attack  the  people  would  abandon  their 
homes  and  rush  to  the  blockhouse.  After  King  Philip's 
War  there  was  little  use  for  the  blockhouse. 


MANUFACTURING    AND   COMMERCE 


135 


Manufacturing  and  Commerce.  —  The  soil  of  New  Eng 
land  was  not  fertile  and  many  of  the  people  became 
fishermen,  shipbuilders,  sailors,  and  merchants.  Foreign 
commerce  was  an  important  industry.  Fish,  cattle,  and 
lumber  were  sent  to  the  West  Indies,  to  England,  or  to 
Spain,  and  molasses  and  many  manufactured  articles 


THE     D17XCE. 


This  is    a   sight    to    o"i 
Once    swn    ne'er-   wksfc 


e  us  ,     . 
t'd  to  see  ags»m 


ILLUSTRATION  FROM  "PLAIN  THINGS  FOR  LITTLE  FOLKS" 

were  brought  back  in  return.  But  the  farmers  supplied 
many  of  their  own  wants.  Nearly  every  one  was  "  handy 
with  tools."  The  farmer  and  his  sons  made  much  of  the 
furniture  for  the  household  and  many  implements  for  the 
farm,  while  his  wife  and  daughters  spun  the  flax  and  wove 
it  into  cloth  with  which  the  family  was  clothed. 

Home  Life   in   New  York.  —  Colonial    society    in    New 


136     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

York  was  unlike  that  of  any  other  colony,  owing  to  the 
patroon  system.  The  patroon  had  a  luxurious  house, 
large  barns,  orchards,  and  broad  pasture  lands  dotted  with 
herds  of  sheep  and  cattle.  His  tenants  were  scattered  for 
miles  about  him. 

The  majority  of  the  people  were  Dutch,  and  they  re 
tained  the  habits  and  customs  of  their  nation  for  two  hun 
dred  years.  They  were  a  religious,  industrious  people. 
They  lived  in  small  wooden  or  brick  houses  with  sanded 
floors,  high,  steep  roofs  and,  in  the  villages,  with  the  gable 
ends  "  notched  like  steps,"  turned  toward  the  street. 
Country  houses  were  often  placed  near  together,  forming 
a  little  village  street.  On  the  stoop  the  family  would  sit, 
in  summer  evenings,  chatting  with  their  neighbors,  the 
men  smoking  long  Dutch  pipes,  the  women  busy  with 
their  knitting  or  sewing,  and  the  children  playing  about 
the  yard.  No  people  in  America  presented  a  more  attract 
ive  picture  of  quiet  contentment,  of  thrift  and  plenty,  than 
the  Dutch  population  of  New  York. 

Industries  in  New  York.  —  The  great  valleys  of  the 
Hudson  and  the  Mohawk  were  very  fertile  and  the  major 
ity  of  the  people  were  farmers.  But  foreign  commerce 
and  the  Indian  fur  trade  were  industries  of  great  impor 
tance.  A  trader  would  go  into  the  Indian  country  laden 
with  rum  and  various  trinkets  prized  by  the  natives,  and 
for  them  he  would  receive  furs  and  peltries.  He  would 
then  float  down  the  Hudson  and  sell  his  furs  to  the  for 
eign  traders  of  Manhattan. 

New  Jersey.  —  Almost  the  sole  occupation  of  the  people 
in  New  Jersey  was  farming.  The  people  were  nearly  all 
.small  farmers,  and  the  villages,  few  in  number,  were 
chiefly  centers  of  farming  communities.  There  were  al 
most  no  very  rich  men  or  great  estates,  and  society  was 


PENNSYLVANIA  137 

very  democratic.     The   people  were   thrifty  and   honest ; 

houses  were  seldom  locked.     The  laws  and  punishments 
were  modeled  after  those  of  New  England. 


BETTY  LAMPS  OF  THE  COLONIAL  PERIOD 


Pennsylvania.  —  We  find  a  change  in  the  social  atmos 
phere  when  we  cross  the  Delaware  into  Pennsylvania. 
Here  the  Germans  and  Scotch-Irish  made  up  more  than 
half  the  population.  There  were  also  many  Irish,  Swedes, 
and  Welsh,  and  only  in  Philadelphia  did  the  English  out 
number  all  others.  Nearly  every  form  of  religion  was 


138      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

represented  in  Pennsylvania.     First  in  numbers  came  the 
Quakers,   Lutherans,  and   Presbyterians,  and    after   these 


A  FLINT-LOCK  MUSKET 


the  Dunkards,  Moravians,  Baptists,  Anabaptists,  Pietists, 
Menonnites,  Methodists,  Episcopalians,  and  Roman  Catho 
lics.  And  yet  with  all  these  nationalities  and  sects  there 
was  no  colony  more  contented,  happy,  and  democratic 
than  Pennsylvania.  The  chief  industry 
was  farming ;  the  great  anthracite  coal 
fields  had  not  yet  been  discovered.  The 
soil  was  rich  and  the  river  valleys  were 
laden  with  waving  fields  of  grain  every 
year ;  the  broad  meadows  and  mountain 
slopes  were  dotted  with  grazing  herds. 
Not  all  the  people  were  farmers.  Some 
were  engaged  in  the  fur  trade  and  still 
more  in  foreign  commerce.  The  iron 
industry  was  also  begun  before  the  close 
of  the  colonial  period. 

Maryland  and  Virginia.  —  Again  we 
find  a  great  change  in  the  social  atmos 
phere  as  we  cross  into  Maryland  and 
Virginia.  Here  there  was  almost  no 
town  life;  villages  were  few  and  insignificant.  At  the  head 
of  society  stood  the  planter  or  great  landlord  ;  the  plantation 
was  the  center  of  all  social  and  industrial  activity,  and  the 
one  important  product  of  the  plantation  was  tobacco.  In 
the  center  stood  the  mansion  of  the  landlord,  and  around  it 


A  SPINNING-WHEEL 


THE    FAR    SOUTH  139 

were  clustered  the  barns,  offices,  tobacco  houses,  stables, 
and  negro  huts,  the  whole  presenting  the  appearance  of 
a  small  village.  The  planter  enjoyed  every  luxury  — 
blooded  horses,  carriages,  and  body  servants  —  and  his 
dress  was  fashioned  after  that  of  the  upper  classes  in 
England. 


A  FOOT  STOVE 

The  planter's  house  was  furnished  with  the  best  of 
everything  that  could  be  purchased  in  Europe.  Many  of 
the  landlords  kept  packs  of  hunting  dogs,  race  horses,  and 
the  like,  and  they  spent  their  time  in  amusements,  in 
entertaining  strangers,  and  in  politics.  The  labor  of  the 
plantation  was  done  by  slaves. 

The  Far  South.  —  As  we  move  into  the  Carolinas  and 
Georgia  we  find  still  another  change.  Here,  especially  in 
South  Carolina,  there  were  great  plantations,  but  the 
owner  did  not  live  among  his  servants.  The  great  staple 


140      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


was  rice,  and  the  great  rice  planters,  who  were  men   of 

education  and  culture,  resided  in  Charleston.     They  spent 

_  but  few  months  of 

the  year  in  the  ma 
larial  regions  where 
the  rice  was  pro 
duced.  The  work 
was  done  by  herds 
of  slaves,  driven  by 
hired  overseers. 

The  aristocracy 
of  the  South  was 
chivalric  and  pictu 
resque,  though  not 
without  its  short 
comings,  and  what 
ever  our  prejudice 
against  caste,  it  is 
a  remarkable  fact 
that  it  was  this  old 
aristocracy  of  a  sin 
gle  colony  that  fur 
nished  the  new-born  republic  with  its  greatest  soldier,  half 
the  first  cabinet,  many  of  its  leading  statesmen,  and  four  of 
its  first  five  Presidents. 

There  were  many  small  farmers  also  at  the  South,  slave 
owners  on  a  small  scale.  They  were  considered  respect 
able  people,  and  it  was  not  unusual  for  men  of  this  class 
to  rise  by  dint  of  genius,  by  thrift,  and  industry,  to  the 
first  class,  as  in  the  case  of  John  Marshall  and  Patrick 
Henry.  Between  these  small  farmers  and  the  lower 
classes,  composed  of  servants  and  slaves,  there  was  an 
almost  impassable  barrier. 


A  FLAX  BRAKE 


EDUCATION    IN    NEW   ENGLAND 


141 


EDUCATION  AND  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE 

In  our  account  of  the  several  colonies  we  have  given 
special  notice  to  the  religion  of  the  people ;  it  remains  to 
notice  their  means  of  education. 

Education  in  New  England.  — Next  to  religion  the  Puri 
tans  valued  education.  But  six  years  after  the  founding 
of  Boston  a  college  was  founded  at  Newtown  (1636),  now 
Cambridge ;  this  grew  into  Harvard  College,  so  named  be 


cause  the  Rev.  John  Harvard  left  it  a  portion  of  his 
estate.  In  1647  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  or 
dered  that  a  common  school  be  maintained  in  every  town 
of  fifty  families  and  a  grammar  school  in  the  larger  towns. 
The  term  of  school  was  seldom  more  than  four  months  in 
the  year.  The  teacher  was  often  the  minister  of  the  parish, 
the  innkeeper,  or  a  student  earning  his  way  through  col 
lege.  Public  school  teaching  as  a  profession,  and  regular 
trained  teachers  were  unknown  in  colonial  times. 


142      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


(  9) 

17.  Bite  not  chy  bread,  bur 
break  if,  buc  not  with  flovenly 
Fingers,  nor  wiih  the  fame  where- 
wich  <hou  takefl  up  thy  meat, 

1  8    Dip  not  thy  Meat  in  the 


The  text-books  were  dull  and  cumbrous  and  in  no  way  to 
be  compared  with  those  of  to-day.  For  long  weary  hours 
the  children  pondered  over  the  New  England  Primer,  sit 
ting  on  high  seats, 
often  backless, 
their  feet  dangling 
above  the  floor. 

In  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania  the 
schools  fell  below 
those  of  New  Eng 
land,  but  the  effort 
to  educate  the  chil 
dren  was  most 
commendable. 
King's  College 
(now  Columbia) 
was  founded  in 
New  York  in  1754 
and  Princeton  in 
New  Jersey  eight 
years  earlier.  Be 
tween  these  two  in 
point  of  time  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  was  founded  (1749).  Schools 
for  the  masses  of  the  people  in  all  these  colonies  were  few 
and  of  a  poor  quality. 

In  the  South  the  rich  employed  private  tutors  to  teach 
their  children,  or,  in  some  cases,  sent  them  to  England  to 
be  educated.  Among  the  poorer  classes  there  was  almost 
no  opportunity  to  educate  the  children.  It  is  true,  how 
ever,  that  there  were  a  few  free  schools  in  Maryland  before 


19.  Take  not  fait  withagreazy 
Knife. 

io  Spit  not,  cough  not,  nor 
blow  thy  Noie  a*  Table  if  it  may 
be  avoided  ;  but  if  there  be  ne- 
ceflity,  do  it  afide,  and  without 
much  noife. 

xr.  Lean  not  thy  Elbow  on 
(he  Table,  or  on  the  back  of  thy 
Chair. 

21.  SfuiT  not  thy  mouth  fo 
as  to  nil  thy  Cheeks;  be  content 
with  fmaller  Mouchfuls. 

23.  Blow   nor  rhy   Mfat,    6ut 
with  Patience  wait  till  it  be  cool. 

24.  Sup  not  Brotlv  at  the  Ta 
ble,  but  eac  it  with  a  Spoon. 


PAGE  FROM  "  THE  SCHOOL  OF  MANNERS  " 


THE    PRACTICE   OF   MEDICINE  143 

1700  and  by  1743  there  were  two  free  negro  schools  in 
Charleston,  while  Virginia  can  boast  the  second  oldest 
college  in  the  colonies,  William  and  Mary  —  founded  in 
1693. 

The  practice  of  medicine  was  in  a  cruder  state  even  than 
the  educational  facilities.  The  village  doctor  was  almost 
as  important  a  personage  as  the  minister.  His  medical 
education  was  meager,  often  consisting  of  a  short  appren 
ticeship  with  some  noted  physician.  No  medical  college 
existed  in  the  colonies  before  the  Revolution.  In  addition 
to  the  regular  physicians  there  were  many  quacks  who 
hawked  their  special  cures  about  the  country,  but  these 
were  not  peculiar  to  colonial  times  —  we  still  have  them. 

MEANS  OF  TRAVEL;  MAILS;  NEWSPAPERS 

It  is  a  strange  fact  that  until  steam  navigation  came 
into  use  about  a  hundred  years  ago  the  world  had  made  no 
improvement  in  the  methods  of  traveling  for  two  thousand 
years. 

Travel  in  the  Colonies.  —  Much  of  the  traveling  done  in 
colonial  days  was  by  the  waterways.  But  for  the  rivers, 
lakes,  and  bays  the  people  would  have  seen  and  known 
little  of  one  another  outside  their  respective  neighborhoods. 

Travel  by  land  was  on  foot  and  on  horseback  and  by 
the  Indian  trails.  Then  came  the  stagecoach.  There 
were  few  good  roads,  the  best  being  in  Pennsylvania,  all 
centering  in  Philadelphia,  and  over  these  at  certain  seasons 
the  great  Conestoga  wagons  lumbered  into  the  busy  city, 
laden  with  the  products  of  the  farm.  Many  towns  were 
without  roads.  Long  journeys  were  made  on  horseback 
or  on  foot. 

A  governor  of  Massachusetts  relates  that  he  made  ex 
tensive  journeys  afoot,  being  borne  across  swamps  on  the 


144      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

back  of  an  Indian  guide.  A  farmer  went  to  church  astride 
a  horse,  with  his  wife  sitting  behind  him  on  a  cushion 
called  a  pillion,  while  the  young  people  walked,  stopping 
to  change  their  shoes  before  reaching  the  meeting  house. 

Coaches  and  chaises  were  few  before  1700.  Not  until 
1766  was  there  a  regular  stagecoach  line  between  New 
York  and  Philadelphia.  The  journey  then  required  three 
days.  Ten  years  later  a  new  line  was  started  which  made 


CONESTOGA  WAGON 

the  journey  in  two  days.     This  was  called  the   "  Flying 
Machine." 

A  stage  journey  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another 
was  as  comfortless  as  could  well  be  imagined.  The  coach 
was  without  springs,  and  the  seats  were  hard  and  often 
backless.  The  horses  were  jaded  and  worn,  and  the  roads 
were  rough  with  bowlders  and  stumps  of  trees,  or  furrowed 
with  ruts  and  quagmires.  The  journey  was  usually  begun 
at  three  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  after  eighteen  hours  of 
jogging  over  the  rough  roads,  the  weary  traveler  was  put 
down  at  a  country  inn  whose  bed  and  board  were  such  as 
few  horny-handed  laborers  of  to-day  would  endure.  Long 


before  daybreak  the  next 
morning  a  blast  from  the 
driver's  horn  summoned 
him  to  the  renewal  of 
his  journey.  If  the  coach 
stuck  fast  in  a  mire,  as  it 
often  did,  the  passen 
gers  must  alight  and 
help  lift  it  out.  When 
they  came  to  a  river, 
they  found  no  bridge. 
The  crossing  was  made 
at  the  peril  of  all,  on  a 
rude  raft  of  timbers,  or  a 
number  of  canoes  lashed 
together.  After  five  or 
six  days  of  such  torture 
the  traveler  from  Boston 
found  himself  in  the  city 
of  New  York. 

The  mail  was  carried 
by  postriders,  who  fol 
lowed  the  main  roads  as 
far  as  there  were  any; 
on  reaching  the  roadless 
settlements  they  found 
their  way  through  the 
forest  as  best  they  could 
by  the  trails  and  bridle 
paths.  The  postman 
left  a  city,  not  at  regular 
intervals,  but  only  when 
he  received  enough  mail 


TRAVEL   IN    THE   COLONIES  145 

BZPRBSS  FAST  LIH2. 


,•  STAGE}  &  BO  \T 

OFFICE. 

For    rhiladetplno   and   Pitlsburg,  *itnatc(t  near 

the  nrpot,  Knrth  Queen  Street.  Lancaster, 

Tu:tf  doors  Sortf'h  of  Chamberlin's 

Hotel 

THIS  LIN'F.  H  of  acknowledged  speed       Re. 
commendations     have   been    given    by   tho 
most  competent  judges,  in  relation   «o   its   many 
advantages      1  he  extreme  neatness  of 


THE  BOATS 


The  comfort  and  adaptation  of  the 

STAGES 


are  not  to  be  surpassed  by  anvihmgon  the  route. 
The  Fare  will  Se  as  low  us  i»»n  of  anv  of  the 
other  lines.  »iul  the  agents  will  be  t-eatly  and 
willing  to  ronrtuce  to  the  comfort  of  the  passen 
gers,  sef  that  thetr  baggage  is  stnctlv  taken  care 
of.  and  look  to  every  arrange  me  n\  necessary  to 
their  accommodation  The  Porter,  who  i&  known 
ti>  be  obliging,  will  con*ey  baggage  »o  anv  part 
of  the  o«ty  for  those  who  desire  n  The  under- 
»«gne<l  A}Tent  wiU  ende»vor  to  ad<l  to  \\\r  Com% 
fort  of  Uiose  wbp  m>y  patromjc  tbp  tipres* 
Lme 

WM     A     HAMBIMGHT. 

^OENT  FOR  likPUES* 
Mki    ">D.  \f-\n 


146      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED    STATES 

to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  trip.     The  remote  settlements 
were  fortunate  if  they  received  mail  once  a  month. 

Newspapers  were  not  carried  in  the  mails,  but  by  private 
arrangement.  The  newspapers  were  small  and  ill-printed, 
and  contained  little  that  we  would  call  news.  The  chief 
contents  were  bits  of  poetry,  advertisements  for  runaway 
slaves  and  indented  servants,  arrivals  of  cargoes,  bits  of 
European  news,  and  essays  on  politics,  morals,  and  religion. 
The  Boston  News  Letter,  established  in  1704,  was  the  first 
permanent  newspaper  in  America.  At  the  opening  of 
the  Revolution  there  were  thirty-seven  newspapers  printed 
in  the  colonies,  with  a  combined  weekly  circulation  of 
about  five  thousand  copies.  The  first  daily  was  not  printed 
until  1784. 

COLONIAL  GOVERNMENT 

We  have  made  frequent  references '  to  the  government 
of  the  colonies  in  our  account  of  the  settlements ;  but 
the  subject  is  so  important  as  to  require  some  further 
treatment. 

Charter,  Royal,  and  Proprietary  Colonies.  —  The  colonies 
with  respect  to  their  government  are  usually  placed  in  three 
groups:  i.  The  charter  colonies  governed  by  the  people 
by  means  of  a  charter,  or  written  contract  with  the  king. 
At  the  coming  of  the  Revolution  there  were  but  three  of 
these  —  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut. 
2.  The  proprietary  colonies,  held  by  a  proprietor  who 
received  his  power  from  the  king.  There  were  also  three 
of  these — Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Delaware.  3.  The 
royal  colonies,  which  were  held  directly  by  the  crown.  Of 
these  there  were  seven  —  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  New 
Hampshire,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Georgia. 

It  will  be  noticed   that  the  royal  form  of  government 


CHARTER,    ROYAL,   PROPRIETARY   AND   COLONIES    147 

predominated  at  the  coming  of  the  Revolution.     Several 
of  the  colonies  that  were  at  first  proprietary,  as  the  Caro- 


A  COLONIAL  CHILD  —  JANE  BONNER,  EIGHT  YEARS  OLD,  1700 

Unas  and  Georgia,  became  royal  colonies,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  Virginia,  which  was  first  a  charter  colony.     Only 


148      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

two  of  the  colonies,  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut,  retained 
the  same  form  of  government  from  the  time  of  their  settle 
ment  to  the  Revolution. 

The  chief  difference  in  the  various  groups  lay  in  the 
method  of  choosing  the  governor.  In  the  royal  colonies 
he  was  appointed  by  the  crown ;  in  the  proprietary  colo-. 
nies  he  was  appointed  by  the  proprietor,  and  in  the  charter 
colonies  he  was  elected  by  the  people  —  with  the  one  ex 
ception  of  Massachusetts,  in  which,  after  receiving  her 
second  charter  in  1691,  the  governor  was  appointed  by  the 
crown. 

The  Three  Departments.  —  The  governments  in  the  vari 
ous  colonies  were  strikingly  similar.  In  each  there  were 
three  departments:  i.  The  governor,  2.  the  council,  and 
3.  the  assembly. 

The  governor  had  a  difficult  position  to  fill.  In  each 
colony  (except  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut)  he  repre 
sented  a  higher  power,  the  king  or  the  proprietor,  and  yet 
he  owed  a  duty  to  the  people.  His  powers  were  extensive. 
He  could  veto  the  acts  of  the  legislature ;  he  had  com 
mand  of  the  militia,  and  he  appointed  many  officials, 
as  judges,  magistrates,  and  sheriffs.  But  in  one  respect 
he  was  always  held  in  check :  he  could  not  tax  the 
people. 

The  council,  usually  about  twelve  men,  was  appointed 
by  the  same  power  that  appointed  the  governor.1  The 
members  were  residents  of  the  colony  and  usually  men  of 
wealth.  The  duties  of  the  council  were  threefold.  It  was 
a  board  of  advisers  to  the  governor ;  it  constituted  the 

1  Except  in  Massachusetts  under  the  second  charter  where  the  council  was 
elected  by  the  General  Court.  In  Pennsylvania  the  council  had  less  power 
than  in  the  other  colonies.  The  two-chambered  legislature  was  not  intro 
duced  into  Georgia  till  1752. 


THE   COURTS  149 

upper  house  of  the  legislature  ;  and  it  frequently  formed 
the  highest  court  in  the  colony. 

The  assembly  was  the  lower  and  larger  branch  of  the 
legislature.  Its  members  were  elected  by  the  people  in  all 
the  colonies.  It  had  most  to  do  with  making  the  laws  ; 
but  its  acts  could  be  vetoed  by  the  governor,  or  if  signed 
by  him,  they  could  be  set  aside  by  the  king.  The  great 
power  of  the  assembly  lay  in  its  contrpl  of  supplies,  its  sole 
power  of  taxing  the  people.  Often  when  the  governor 
disapproved  its  acts,  it  would  withhold  his  salary  until  he 
yielded.  Many  were  the  conflicts  between  the  governor 
and  assembly,  and  the  latter  usually  won  through  its  power 
over  the  purse. 

The  franchise,  or  right  to  vote,  was  restricted  by 
a  property  test,  or  religious  test,  or  both,  in  all  the 
colonies. 

The  Courts. — At  the  bottom  stood  the  justice  of  the 
peace,  who  presided  at  petty  civil  trials  only.  He  was 
usually  appointed  by  the  governor.  Next  came  the  county 
courts  before  which  were  tried  civil  cases  involving  small 
sums,  and  criminal  cases  not  involving  capital  punishment. 
The  highest  court  was  usually  composed  of  the  governor 
and  council,  but  in  some  cases  an  appeal  could  be  made 
to  the  Privy  Council  in  England. 

Local  Government.  —  In  New  England  the  township, 
called  the  town,  was  the  unit  of  local  government.  Once 
a  year  and  sometimes  oftener  the  voters  of  the  town 
would  all  meet  together  to  lay  taxes,  to  make  laws,  and  to 
choose  officers  called  selectmen,  and  many  other  officers. 
The  county  was  of  far  less  importance  in  New  England 
than  the  town. 

In  the  South  the  county  was  the  important  political  divi 
sion.  The  chief  county  officer  was  the  sheriff,  appointed 


150     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

by  the  governor.  Counties  in  the  South  were  divided  into 
parishes,  but  the  business  of  the  parish  at  length  came  to 
be  done  by  the  county  officers,  known  as  the  County  Court. 
In  South  Carolina  there  were  parishes,  but  neither  counties 
nor  townships  ;  in  Maryland  the  township  was  at  first  called 
the  hundred,  and  is  still  so  called  in  Delaware. 

In  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania  a  mixed 
system  was  adopted,  a  blending  of  the  town  system  of 
New  England  and  of  the  county  system  of  the  South.  In 
New  York  the  chief  township  officer  was  the  supervisor, 
who  was  also  a  county  officer,  being  a  member  of  the  board 
of  supervisors,  which  met  once  a  year.  In  Pennsylvania 
the  county  was  first  organized,  and  the  township  came 
into  existence  only  when  the  business  of  the  county  became 
burdensome  and  had  to  be  divided. 


THE  NAVIGATION  LAWS 

The  thirteen  colonies,  as  we  have  noticed,  were  in  a  great 
measure  self-governing,  but  not  wholly  so.  In  several 
ways  the  liberty  of  the  colonies  was  restricted.  They  all 
acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the  British  crown;  all  but 
two  had  governors  with  veto  power,  appointed  by  a  power 
above  the  people  ;  the  Privy  Council  of  England,  in  certain 
cases,  became  a  court  of  last  resort  in  deciding  colonial 
affairs  ;  and,  most  important  of  all,  Parliament  had  power 
to  make  the  trade  laws,  known  as  the  navigation  laws. 

The  trade  of  the  colonies  was  with  one  another,  with  the 
West  Indies,  and  with  Europe.  The  Navigation  Acts  were 
intended  to  regulate  this  trade.  The  first  was  passed  in 
1651  and  the  second  a  few  years  later.  They  forbade  the 
carrying  of  any  goods  to  or  from  the  colonies  except  in 
English  or  colonial  ships,  and  forbade  the  shipping  of  cer- 


THE   MOLASSES   ACT  151 

tain  articles,  as  tobacco,  sugar,  cotton,  and  wool,  to  any 
country  except  England,  and  when  shipped  to  England, 
heavy  duties  were  required.  These  laws  if  enforced  would 
have  been  disastrous  to  colonial  trade,  but  in  1672  another 
burden  was  added  :  a  law  was  passed  laying  duties  on  all 
trade  from  one  colony  to  another. 

These  laws,  burdensome  as  they  were,  were  followed  by 
others  which  added  to  the  burden.  The  corn  laws  enacted 
about  1666,  in  the  interest  of  the  British  farmers,  shut  out 
from  England  grain  raised  in  the  colonies.  This  drove 
some  of  the  northern  colonies  to  manufacturing,  and  this 
again  led  Parliament  to  pass  laws  against  manufacturing. 
New  York  made  a  great  many  fur  hats,  but  in  1732  a  law 
was  passed  forbidding  the  exporting  of  hats  to  England,  to 
any  foreign  country,  or  from  one  colony  to  another.  Iron 
forges  and  furnaces  had  been  set  up  in  many  colonies, 
but  in  1750  a  law  was  enacted  declaring  that  "no  mill  or 
other  engine  for  rolling  or  slitting  iron,  nor  any  furnace 
for  making  steel,  shall  be  erected  in  the  colonies." 

The  JdoTaoooo-Act  of  1733  was  one  of  the  harshest  of 
British  laws  in  suppression  of  colonial  trade.  New  Eng 
land  enjoyed  a  large  trade  with  the  West  Indies,  receiving 
molasses  and  sugar  for  flour,  lumber,  and  fish.  By  the 
Molasses  Act  prohibitive  duties  were  put  on  West  India 
sugar  and  molasses,  and  had  it  been  strictly  enforced  the 
prosperity  of  New  England  would  have  been  at  an  end. 

The  general  purpose  of  the  navigation  laws  was,  not 
wantonly  to  cripple  the  growth  of  the  colonies,  but  to  make 
them  beneficial  to  the  mother  country.1  A  similar  ground 
was  taken  by  all  the  European  countries  that  had  colonies 
at  this  period.  Manufactures,  for  example,  were  sup 
pressed  in  order  to  create  an  American  market  for  British 

1  And  also  at  first  to  prevent  smuggling  by  the  Dutch  of  New  Netherland, 


152      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

manufactures.     The  Molasses  Act  was  passed  in  the  inter 
est  of  the  British  sugar  islands. 

In  fairness  to  the  English  government  it  must  be  said 
that  Parliament  passed  various  laws  purely  in  the  interest 
of  the  colonies.  It  prohibited  the  raising  of  tobacco  in 
England  in  order  to  aid  the  American  tobacco  raisers,  and 
it  paid  bounties  on  American  hemp,  tar,  and  the  like. 

Smuggling.  —  The  Navigation  Acts  were  too  sweeping 
and  too  harsh  to  be  enforced,  and  the  colonists  evaded  them 
at  every  port.  The  laws  against  manufacturing  were  to  a 
great  extent  enforced ;  but  not  so  with  the  laws  against 
trade.  They  could  scarcely  be  enforced  at  all.  The  whole 
people  became  lawbreakers,  smuggling  goods  in  and  out  of 
the  country  in  vast  quantities.1  Public  officials,  including 
governors,  were  said  to  connive  at  the  business,  and  when 
a  smuggler  was  arrested,  it  was  difficult  to  find  a  jury  that 
would  convict  him. 

The  policy  was  on  the  whole  unfortunate  to  British 
interests.  It  not  only  made  the  people  lawbreakers,  it 
also  led  them  to  hold  Parliament  in  contempt  as  unable  to 
enforce  its  own  laws,  and  little  by  little  it  served  to  prepare 
them  for  a  final  break  with  the  mother  land. 

REFERENCES 

For  a  popular  study  of  colonial  life,  habits,  manners,  dress,  and  fur 
niture  the  volumes  of  Mrs.  Alice  Morse  Earle  have  no  equal.  Among 
the  best  of  her  books  are  "  Customs  and  Fashions  in  Old  New  England  "  ; 
"Stage  Coach  and  Tavern  Days";  "Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days1'; 
"  Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days.11  S.  G.  Fisher's  "  Men,  Women,  and 
Manners  of  Colonial  Times11  is  also  recommended.  Lodge's  "Short 
History11  is  especially  strong  in  its  dealing  with  colonial  life  and  habits. 
For  government  of  the  colonies  Fiske's  "  Civil  Government "  and 
Andrew's  "  Manual  of  the  Constitution "  are  recommended. 

1  The  people  were  not  without  examples  in  smuggling.  It  was  said  that 
forty  thousand  men  in  England  were  at  that  time  engaged  in  smuggling. 


CHAPTER    IX 
THE  REVOLUTION 

THE  bond  between  Great  Britain  and  her  American 
colonies  was  a  weak  one  and  how  long  it  would  have  re 
mained  unbroken,  but  for  certain  unexpected  events,  is  a 
matter  of  conjecture.  All  the  colonies,  except  Georgia, 
had  been  planted  and  had  grown  to  a  state  of  prosperity 
without  aid  from  the  British  government,  as  wild  grain 
outside  the  cultivated  fields.  When  this  fact  is  considered, 
it  seems  remarkable  that  the  filial  affection  of  the  colonists 
for  the  mother  country  continued  so  long  and  so  faithfully. 
It  is  true  that  the  navigation  laws  were  irritating  and  that 
there  were  frequent  quarrels  with  the  royal  governors ;  but 
these  were  only  ripples  on  a  smooth  sea.  The  people  con 
tinued  to  hew  away  the  forests,  to  delve  the  soil,  and  to 
build  cities,  churches,  and  schools,  and  though  many  thou 
sands  of  them  had  been  born  in  America  and  had  never 
seen  England,  their  proudest  boast  was  that  they  were 
Englishmen. 

It  is  true  that  a  separation  at  some  time  was  sure  to 
come.  The  two  peoples  had  unconsciously  grown  apart 
for  many  years.  The  Americans  had  learned  to  govern 
themselves ;  they  had  become  strong  in  battling  with  the 
French,  with  the  Indians,  and  with  the  wolves,  and  no 
longer  now  did  they  feel  the  need  of  protection  from  the 
French,  since  Canada  had  been  ceded  to  England. 


154      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

.    CAUSES  OF  THE  WAR 

At  the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  the  British 
debt  had  grown  to  large  proportions  and  there  was  a  feel 
ing  among  British  statesmen  that  the  colonies  should  in 
some  regular  way  be  made  to  share  the  burdens  of  the 
empire. 

A  threefold  policy  was  decided  on.  First,  the  Naviga 
tion  Acts  must  be  enforced.  The  high  duties  of  the  Molas 
ses  Act  were  lowered,  after  which  it  was  determined  to 
enforce  them.  Second,  a  standing  army  must  be  main 
tained  in  America,  and  third,  the  colonies  must  be  taxed. 

James  Otis.  —  In  order  to  enforce  the  navigation  laws 
officers  were  armed  with  "writs  of  assistance,"  or  search 
warrants  by  which  they  were  authorized  to  enter  stores, 
warehouses,  or  private  dwellings  in  search  of  smuggled 
goods.  This  practice,  which  had  gone  on  for  a  long  time, 
was  very  distasteful  to  the  people.  At  length,  in  1761,  a 
brilliant  young  Boston  lawyer,  James  Otis,  led  in  a  cru 
sade  against  the  practice.  In  a  fiery  speech  he  declared 
that  the  writs  were  illegal,  and  that  Parliament  had  no 
right  to  trample  thus  on  the  liberties  of  the  people.  The 
speech  of  Otis  was  the  first  note  of  resistance  heard  in  the 
colonies.  The  people  were  roused  and  with  few  excep 
tions  they  agreed  with  the  Boston  lawyer.  John  Adams, 
then  a  young  man,  heard  the  speech  of  Otis,  and  many 
years  later  he  wrote  that  "  Otis  was  a  flame  of  fire,"  that 
his  oration  "  breathed  into  this  nation  the  breath  of  life," 
that  "  then  and  there  independence  was  born." 

Patrick  Henry.  —  Scarcely  had  the  sound  of  Otis's  voice 
subsided  when  another  arose,  this  one  from  a  young  lawyer 
in  Virginia,  Patrick  Henry.  The  king  had  set  aside  a  law 
made  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia  ;  the  case  came  before 


THE    STAMP   ACT 


155 


a  jury  in  the  "  Parson's  Cause,"  and  Henry,  in  an  outburst 
of  eloquence,  declared  that  the  king  had  no  right  to  inter 
fere  in  the  private  affairs  of  the  colony. 

This  case  had  no  connection  with  the  writs  of  assistance, 
but  the  principle  involved  was  the  same  as  in  the  case  of 
Otis  —  a  resistance  to  British  interference  with  the  liber 
ties  of  the  colonists. 

The  Stamp  Act.  —  In  order  to  raise  money  to  keep  a  stand 
ing  army  in  America  the  English  Parliament  passed  an  act  in 
March,  1765,  known  as  the 
Stamp  Act.  There  were 
fifty-four  kinds  of  stamps 
in  all,  differing  greatly  in 
value.  It  was  required 
that  they  be  purchased  by 
the  Americans  and  used 
on  newspapers,  deeds,  and 
many  kinds  of  bills. 

The  Americans  were  greatly  opposed  to  paying  a  tax  in 
this  way.  They  declared  that  they  could  protect  them 
selves  from  the  Indians  and  did  not  need  an  army  among 
them.  They  decided  that  they  would  not  purchase  or 
use  the  stamps  at  all.  Again  Massachusetts  and  Vir 
ginia  joined  hands.  The  Virginia  legislature,  led  by 
Patrick  Henry,  passed  a  series  of  resolutions  against  the 
Stamp  Act,  and  they  were  published  broadcast  over  the 
land.  The  Massachusetts  legislature,  led  by  Otis,  called 
for  a  congress  of  all  the  colonies  to  protest  against  the 
Stamp  Act. 

The  Stamp  Act  Congress  met  in  New  York  City  in 
October,  1765.  Members  were  there  from  nine  of  the 
thirteen  colonies.  The  leading  men  were  James  Otis  and 
Christopher  Gadsden,  of  South  Carolina.  This  congress 


STAMP  ACT  STAMPS 


156      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

sat  for  three  weeks  and  framed  a  Declaration  of  Rights  and 
a  petition  to  the  king  and  Parliament. 

The  Parliament  refused  to  recede  and  the  stamps  were 
sent.  The  American  people  became  furious.  Great  mass 
meetings  were  held  and  riots  occurred.  Boxes  of  stamps 
were  seized  and  destroyed  and  the  men  appointed  to  dis 
tribute  them  were  forced  to  resign  and  often  burned  in 
effigy.  In  New  York  Lieutenant  Governor  Golden  at 
tempted  to  enforce  the  act  and  the  people  threatened  to 
hang  him  to  a  lamp  post.  Merchants  and  business  men 
banded  together  and  agreed  not  to  import  goods  from 
England  till  the  adieus  law  was  repealed.  A  patriotic 
society,  known  as  the  "Sons  of  Liberty,"  was  formed  and 
it  determined  to  resist  the  use  of  the  stamps.  "  No  taxa 
tion  without  representation  "  was  the  cry  on  all  sides. 

Repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act.  —  The  British  Parliament  did 
not  perhaps  intend  to  offend  the  colonists  with  the  stamps  ; 
it  meant  to  raise  money  in  the  easiest  way,  as  it  was  be 
lieved.  But  when  the  fierce  opposition  arose  in  America, 
a  motion  to  repeal  the  act  was  brought  up.  William  Pitt, 
whom  we  have  met  in  connection  with  the  French  ancl 
Indian  War,  made  a  powerful  plea  for  repeal,  declaring  that 
he  was  glad  America  had  resisted.  The  act  was  repealed 
in  1766,  but  with  the  repeal  was  passed  the  Declaratory 
Act,  a  statement  that  Parliament  had  the  right  to  tax  the 
colonies  "  in  all  cases  whatsoever." 

The  colonists  were  so  pleased  with  the  repeal  that  they 
were  ready  to  forget  all  the  past  trouble ;  but  the  very 
next  year,  1767,  Parliament  was  foolish  enough  to  irritate 
them  again.  It  laid  a  tax  on  tea,  glass,  and  a  few  other 
things  to  show  that  it  could  tax  America  if  it  chose. 
Again  the  colonists  were  aflame  with  anger  —  for  the  third 
time  within  a  few  years. 


SAMUEL   ADAMS   AND   GEORGE    WASHINGTON       157 


Samuel  Adams  and  George  Washington.  —  A  new  leader 
then  arose  in  Massachusetts,  Samuel  Adams;  and  another 
in  Virginia,  George  Washington,  who  led  the  planters  of 
his  colony  to  resistance. 
Various  legislatures  con 
demned  the  new  form  of 
taxation  and  declared  that 
the  people  had  the  sole 
right  to  tax  themselves. 
It  was  determined  on  all 
sides  that  neither  tea  nor 
other  taxed  articles  should 
be  imported  until  the  du 
ties  were  removed. 

The  Boston  Massacre; 
The  Gaspee.  —  British 
troops  were  sent  to  Boston 
to  enforce  the  new  tax  law 
and  one  day  they  fired  on 
some  of  the  people  who 
jeered  them  in  the  streets, 

killing  several.  The  people  became  so  furious  at  this  that 
the  soldiers  had  to  be  removed  from  the  town.  In  North 
Carolina  the  royal  governor  fired  on  the  people  who  had 
organized  as  "  regulators." 

The  Gaspee  was  a  British  vessel  with  troops  who  com 
mitted  many  outrages  along  the  coast  of  Rhode  Island, 
until  the  residents  became  so  angered  that  they  burned  the 
vessel.  These  events  showed  that  the  breach  between 
England  and  America  was  widening,  and  the  signs  of  the 
times  pointed  to  still  more  serious  differences. 

The  Boston  Tea  Party.  —  Parliament  again  decided  to 
give  way.  It  repealed  the  duties  on  all  the  goods,  except 


SAMUEL  ADAMS 


158      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

tea.1  The  duty  on  tea  was  retained  because  the  young 
king,  George  III,  wished  to  show  the  colonists  that  he 
could  tax  them  if  he  chose.  But  the  Americans  refused 
to  buy  the  tea;  they  decided  to  refrain  from  drinking  tea 
till  the  tax  was  removed.  They  determined  also  that  they 
would  not  even  permit  the  tea  to  be  landed. 

In  the  autumn  of  1773  ships  loaded  with  tea  reached  the 
harbors  at  Charleston,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Boston. 
At  Philadelphia  the  ships  were  not  permitted  to  land ;  at 
Charleston  the  tea  was  landed,  only  to  rot  in  storage.  At 
Boston  three  tea  ships  lay  in  the  har 
bor,  but  the  people  declared  that  it 
should  not  be  landed.  At  a  great 
meeting  held  at  Faneuil  Hall, 
known  as  the  "  Cradle  of  Liberty," 
it  was  declared  that  the  tea  must 
not  be  landed.  One  night  in  De 
cember,  1773,  about  fifty  men  dis 
guised  as  Indians,  after  giving  a 
war  whoop,  ran  silently  to  the  har 
bor,  boarded  the  ships,  broke  open 
the  tea  chests,  and  poured  the  con 
tents  into  the  sea. 

Four  Intolerable  Acts.— When  King 
George  heard  of  the  work  of  the  Boston  Tea  Party,  he  was 
very  angry,  and  in  quick  succession  he  had  his  Parliament 
pass  four  harsh  measures :  i.  The  Boston  Port  Bill,  which 
closed  the  port  of  Boston  and  moved  the  capital  of  the 
colony  to  Salem  ;  2.  An  act  called  the  Regulating  Act, 
annulling  the  charter  of  Massachusetts ;  3.  An  act  pro 
viding  that  persons  accused  of  certain  offenses  be  sent  to 

1  The  duties  collected  under  this  method  had  amounted  to  £i 6,000,  and 
it  cost  the  British  government  ^200,000  to  collect  it. 


FANEUIL  HALL 


THE   APPEAL   OF   MASSACHUSETTS  159 

England  for  trial ;    4.    An  act  making  it  legal  to  quarter 
troops  in  any  town  in  Massachusetts. 

The  Appeal  of  Massachusetts.  —  The  colony  of  Massa 
chusetts  in  her  distress  now  made  an  appeal  to  the  other 
colonists  for  help.  Committees  of  Correspondence  had 
been  formed  in  nearly  all  the  colonies,  and  it  was  through 
them  that  the  appeal  was  made.  The  response  from  Maine 
to  Georgia  was  most  gratifying.  George  Washington 
offered  to  arm  a  thousand  men  at  his  own  expense  and 
march  in  defense  of  Boston.  Thomas  Jefferson  declared 
that  Parliament  had  no  right  to  any  authority  in  the 
colonies.  Nearly  all  the  colonies  joined  in  an  agreement 
of  non-intercourse  with  England.  As  the  day  for  the 
Boston  Port  Bill  to  go  into  effect  approached,  cattle,  grain, 
and  produce  from  the  other  colonies  began  to  pour  into 
Boston.  Had  King  George  been  able  to  glance  over 
America  on  that  day  he  would  have  seen  that  one  of  two 
courses  lay  open  to  him  —  to  recede  from  his  position  or 
to  make  war  upon  a  continent. 

THE  CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS  ;  BUNKER  HILL 

The  above-mentioned  events  showed  clearly  that  there 
was  a  widespread  feeling  in  the  colonies  against  English 
oppression  and  a  determination  to  resist  it ;  but  there  was 
no  union  and  without  union  the  colonists  could  scarcely 
hope  to  succeed,  if  England  persisted.  The  much-desired 
union  was  brought  about  by  the  formation  of  the  First 
Continental  Congress,  the  result  of  a  spontaneous  move 
ment  throughout  the  country.  A  young  Bostonian  named 
Paul  Revere  started  on  a  fleet  horse  to  New  York  and 
Philadelphia,  to  rouse  the  people ;  but  he  had  little  to  do. 
The  people  were  already  aroused.  From  all  the  colonies 


160      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE    UNITED   STATES 

except  Georgia  delegates  were  sent  to  the  Congress.  It 
met  in  Carpenter's  Hall,  Philadelphia,  in  September,  1774, 
was  in  session  seven  weeks,  and,  adjourning,  appointed 
the  loth  of  the  following  May  for  the  meeting  of  a  second 
Congress  in  case  it  was  needed.  Among  the  leading 
members  of  the  First  Continental  Congress  were  George 
Washington  and  Patrick  Henry  of  Virginia,  John  Dickin 
son  of  Pennsylvania,  John  and  Samuel  Adams  of  Massa 
chusetts,  and  Roger  Sherman  of  Connecticut. 

What  the  Congress  Did.  — This  Congress  did  not  attempt 
to  make  laws.  The  members  had  no  thought  of  independ 
ence  from  England.  They  wished  only  to  secure  freedom 
from  oppressive  laws.  They  were  not  violent  nor  did  they 
talk  about  arms  and  warfare.  They  declared  their  rights 
and  prepared  three  addresses,  one  to  the  king,  another  to 
the  people  of  England,  and  a  third  to  the  people  of  Canada. 
They  also  formed  an  association  to  carry  out  the  policy  of 
non-intercourse  with  England,  and  for  this  purpose  com 
mittees  were  to  be  formed  in  every  county  and  township  in 
the  country. 

When  their  addresses  reached  England,  William  Pitt,  who 
was  now  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  declared  that  for  firmness, 
wisdom,  and  solidity  of  reasoning  no  nation  or  body  of 
men  could  stand  in  preference  to  the  Congress  at  Phila 
delphia. 

In  Massachusetts  there  was  great  excitement.  In  the 
absence  of  Samuel  Adams  the  leaders  were  John  Han 
cock,  the  richest  merchant  in  New  England,  and  Joseph 
Warren,  a  noted  Boston  physician.  The  people  forced  the 
king's  officers  to  resign,  refused  to  serve  as  jurymen,  and  on 
every  village  green  they  met  for  military  drill. 

Paul  Revere's  Ride  ;  Lexington. — The  short-sighted  king 
did  not  heed  the  humble  petition  of  the  Congress.  On  the 


PAUL    REVERE'S    RIDE;    LEXINGTON 


161 


other  hand,  he  sent  General  Gage  with  an  army  to  awe 
the  people  and  made  him  governor  of  the  colony.  But  the 
people  refused  to  be  awed ;  they  collected  a  large  store  of 
guns  and  ammunition  at  Concord,  some  miles  from  Boston. 
General  Gage  then  sent  several  hundred  men  to  destroy 
the  stores. 

When  it  was  rumored  that  the  soldiers  would  be  sent 
on  a  certain  night,  Paul  Revere  stood  by  his  steed  waiting 
for  a  lantern  signal 
in  a  church  tower. 
When  he  saw  it,  he 
started  on  his  mid 
night  ride  to  apprise 
the  people.  When 
he  reached  the  little 
town  of  Lexington, 
some  one  said  that 
he  was  making  too 
much  noise  and  would 
awaken  the  people. 
"  Noise,"  cried  Re- 
vere,"you'll  soon  have 
noise  enough  ;  the 
regulars  are  coming." 

On  came  the  sol 
diers  and  when  they 
reached  Lexington,  a 
fight  occurred  in  which  several  were  killed.  The  troops 
then  moved  on  to  Concord.  But  the  farmers,  having  heard 
of  their  coming,  seized  their  muskets  and  swarmed  into 
Concord  by  hundreds.1  A  fierce  fight  ensued.  The 
British  were  beaten  and  started  to  run ;  but  the  farmers 

1  The  pupils  should  here  be  required  to  read  Emerson's  "  Concord  Hymn." 
M 


THE   MlNUTEMAN  AT  CONCORD 


162      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

kept  after  them,  and  from  behind  trees,  fences,  thickets, 
and  hillocks  they  poured  an  incessant  fire  into  the  retreat 
ing  enemy.  No  doubt  the  whole  British  force  would  have 
been  killed  or  captured  had  not  General  Gage  sent  re- 
enforcements,  who  met  the  fleeing  army  at  Lexington. 

Result  of  the  Battle.  —  This  first  armed  conflict  roused 
the  people  as  nothing  had  done  before.  The  patriots  did 
not  return  to  their  homes ;  they  gathered  around  Boston, 
and  thousands  of  others  soon  joined  them.  Israel  Putnam 
of  Connecticut  left  his  plow  in  the  furrow  and  led  a  band 
of  farmers  to  Boston  ;  Benedict  Arnold  brought  a  com 
pany  from  New  Haven ;  John  Stark  came  with  twelve 
hundred  from  New  Hampshire,  and  Nathanael  Greene 
brought  a  thousand  men  from  Rhode  Island.  Within  a 
few  days  after  this  Concord  fight  Boston  was  beset  with 
an  army  of  sixteen  thousand  patriots. 

The  other  colonies  were  also  roused.  The  royal  gov 
ernors  were  driven  from  their  offices.  Three  weeks  after 
the  fight  at  Lexington  and  Concord,  two  powerful  forts  in 
northern  New  York,  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  were 
seized  by  the  patriots  led  by  Ethan  Allen  and  Seth  Warner. 

Everything  now  pointed  to  a  long  and  bloody  war. 
The  people  were  not  yet  thinking  much  about  independ 
ence.  Reconciliation  was  still  possible,  but  only  on  the 
condition  that  the  proud  English  monarch  would  yield. 

Second  Continental  Congress.  —  The  first  Congress  had 
decided  that  a  second  meet  in  May,  1775,  if  there  was 
need,  and  there  was.  The  Second  Continental  Congress 
met  at  the  time  appointed,  in  the  State  House,  afterward 
Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia.  Many  of  the  old  mem 
bers  were  present.  A  few  of  the  new  ones  were  Benjamin 
Franklin,  John  Hancock,  who  was  made  president,  and 
Thomas  Jefferson. 


SECOND   CONTINENTAL    CONGRESS  163 

Doings  of  the  Second  Congress.  —  One  of  the  most  im 
portant  acts  of  this  Congress  was  to  adopt  the  army  around 
Boston  and  appoint  a  commander  in  chief.  George  Wash 
ington  of  Virginia  was  chosen  as  the  commander.  When 
John  Adams  was  making  the  nominating  speech,  describ 
ing  the  kind  of  man  he  would  name,  Washington  sat  and 
listened  intently.  When  he  heard  his  own  name  men- 


OLD  STATE  HOUSE,  PHILADELPHIA 

tioned,  he  rose  quickly  and  left  the  room.     The  choice  was 
made  by  ballot  and  every  one  voted  for  Washington. 

This  Congress  laid  no  claim  to  a  desire  for  independ 
ence.  It  prepared  another  petition  to  the  king  and  sent 
it  by  special  messenger ;  it  also  sent  addresses  to  the  peo 
ple  of  England,  to  Ireland,  and  to  Canada.  It  authorized 
the  various  colonies  to  set  up  governments  instead  of  the 
royal  governments  that  had  been  overthrown,  and  it  did 
many  other  necessary  things. 


1 64      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 

Bunker  Hill.  —  In    spite  of  the   disaster  at  Lexington 
and  Concord   British    hopes   rose   high   at   Boston  in    the 

spring  of  1775.  Gen 
erals  Howe,  Clin 
ton,  and  Burgoyne 
arrived  in  May  with 
another  army.  Gage 
had  possession  of 
Boston,  but  there 
were  hills  about  the 
city  from  which,  if 
occupied  by  the 
Americans,  shells 
might  be  thrown  in 
to  the  British  camp 
and  shipping.  Gage,  therefore,  determined  to  occupy  some 
of  these  hills,  and  the  Americans,  hearing  of  this,  deter 
mined  to  head  off  the  enemy  and  occupy  them  first. 

Accordingly  General  Artemas  Ward,  the  American 
commander,  sent  Colonel  William  Prescott  with  twelve 
hundred  men  to  occupy  Bunker  Hill.  They  passed 
Bunker  Hill  and  reached  Breed's  Hill,  where  they  threw 
up  an  embankment  Next  morning  three  thousand  of  the 
British  regulars,  led  by  Howe,  surged  up  the  hill  and 
opened  the  battle.  Twice  they  were  driven  back,  leaving 
many  of  their  numbers  dead  and  dying  strewn  along  the 
hillside.  A  third  attack  was  successful,  as  the  Americans 
had  run  short  of  powder.  The  British  captured  the  hill, 
but  only  with  the  loss  of  more  than  a  thousand  men,  while 
the  American  loss  was  less  than  four  hundred  and  fifty. 
Saddest  of  all,  the  noble  patriot  Joseph  Warren  was  among 
the  American  slain. 

Washington  takes  Charge  of  the  Army.  —  Two   weeks 


WASHINGTON   TAKES   CHARGE   OF   THE   ARMY      165 

after  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  Washington  reached 
Cambridge,  and  under  a  great  elm  tree,  that  is  still  stand 
ing,  assumed  command.  He  was  warmly  greeted  by  the 
officers  and  men.  Among  the  officers  were  the  generals  : 
Nathanael  Greene  of  Rhode  Island,  the  ablest  commander 
in  the  war,  except  Washington  ;  John  Sullivan  and  John 
Stark  of  New  Hampshire;  Henry  Knox,  who  years  after 
ward  became  a  member  of  Washington's  first  Cabinet,  and 


THE  BATTLE  OF  BUNKER  HILL 

Daniel  Morgan,  the  leader  of  five  hundred  Virginia  sharp 
shooters.  The  British  seemed  to  have  learned  a  lesson  at 
Concord  and  Bunker  Hill,  and  many  months  passed  with 
out  an  attack  being  made.  Washington  spent  the  time 
drilling  and  reorganizing  his  army. 

An  American  expedition  was  sent  to  Canada  in  the 
autumn  of  1775,  but  it  was  not  successful  and  the  leader, 
General  Richard  Montgomery,  was  killed. 


166      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


At   the   approach  of  spring,    1776,   Washington   deter 
mined  to  strike  a  blow.     One  night  early  in  March  he 

sent  a  part  of  his  army 
to  occupy  Dorchester 
Heights,  overlooking 
Boston  Harbor.  In  the 
morning  General  Howe, 
^  who  had  succeeded  Gage 
as  commander  of  the 
British  army,  was  aston 
ished  to  find  that  the 
Americans  were  in  posi 
tion  to  destroy  every 
ship  in  the  harbor.  This 
was  on  March  5,  pre 
cisely  six  years  after  the 
Boston  Massacre.  Howe 


\ 


THE  WASHINGTON  ELM,  CAMBRIDGE 

now  determined  to  leave 

Boston.  With  all  his  ships  he  sailed  away  to  Halifax, 
and  never  since  then  has  a  foreign  foe  trod  the  soil  of 
Massachusetts. 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 

We  left  Congress  waiting  to  hear  the  answer  to  their 
petition  to  the  king.  It  reached  London  in  August,  1775. 
The  answer  came  in  October,  and  it  was  a  stunning  one. 
King  George  had  refused  to  receive  the  petition  or  to  see 
the  messenger  that  bore  it.  But  that  was  not  all.  The 
king  had  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  the  colonists 
rebels  and  no  longer  under  his  protection  and  he  had  hired 
a  large  number  of  Hessian  soldiers  to  fight  the  Americans. 

Move  toward  Independence. — The  news  of  these  things 
reached  America  in  October  and  the  people  were  deeply 


NORTH   CAROLINA 


I67 


stirred.  Thousands  who  had  been  lukewarm  before  now 
came  out  openly  for  the  patriot  cause.  The  war  had  been 
in  progress  nearly  a  year 
and  few  of  the  people 
had  thought  of  breaking 
away  from  England. 
But  now  they  began  to 
talk  openly  of  independ 
ence.  The  idea  of  in 
dependence  grew  stead 
ily  during  the  winter. 

North  Carolina  was 
the  first  colony  to  move 
through  its  legislature 
for  independence.  This 
was  in  April,  17/6. 
Soon  after  this  the 
legislature  of  Virginia 
instructed  its  delegates 
in  Congress  to  propose 

a  declaration,  and  one  of  them,  Richard  Henry  Lee,  did 
so  on  June  7.  Lee's  resolution  was,  ''That  these  United 
Colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independ 
ent  states,  and  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance 
to  the  British  Crown." 

The  Fourth  of  July. —  Lee's  resolution  was  laid  on  the 
table  for  three  weeks  that  Congress  might  hear  from  the 
various  colonies.  Meantime  Thomas  Jefferson  was  chosen 
the  head  of  a  committee  to  put  the  declaration  into  fitting 
form ;  that  is,  to  write  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
By  the  ist  of  July  all  the  colonies,  except  New  York,  had 
given  their  voice  in  favor  of  independence.  The  resolution 
to  declare  a  dissolution  between  the  two  countries  was 


INDEPENDENCE  HALL,  PHILADELPHIA 


168      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


passed  on  the  2d.  Jefferson's  Declaration  was  then 
taken  up  and  was  passed  on  the  evening  of  the  4th. 

Thus  the  Fourth  of  July 
became  the  national  birth 
day  and  has  since  been 
celebrated  as  our  national 
holiday. 

News  of  the  Declaration. 
-The  people  were  deliri 
ous  with  joy  at  their  new 
decision.  They  knew  that 
years  of  bloody  war  must 
follow,  that  it  meant  va 
cant  chairs,  widowed 
mothers,  and  fatherless 
children.  But  they  took 
no  step  backward ;  they 
had  now  a  goal;  they  knew 
what  they  were  fighting 

for.    The  old  Liberty  Bell, 
THE  LIBERTY  BELL  ' 

as    it  came  to  be  called, 

rang  out  the  glad  news  to  the  city.  Postriders  were  sent 
in  all  directions  to  carry  the  tidings.  In  New  York  a 
leaden  statue  of  George  III  was  melted  into  bullets.  The 
Declaration  was  read  from  pulpits  and  platforms  and  to 
the  soldiers  in  the  army.  It  was  welcomed  everywhere 
with  shouts  and  processions,  with  bonfires  and  illumina 
tions,  with  the  firing  of  guns  and  the  ringing  of  bells.  For 
years  the  people  had  groped  in  the  dark,  unable  to  divine 
the  next  move  on  the  great  chessboard.  Now  there  was 
a  prize  placed  before  them,  and  to  attain  it  they  were 
ready  to  stake  their  "  lives,  their  fortunes,  and  their  sacred 
honor." 


THE   TORIES  169 

MILITARY  MOVEMENTS  OF   1776 

The  Tories.  —  The  Declaration  of  Independence  did  not 
bring  independence  ;  it  defined  the  object  of  the  war  and 
roused  the  people  to  greater  effort.  Not  all  the  people, 
however,  were  in  favor  of  breaking  away  from  England. 
Many  of  them,  perhaps  one  third  of  the  colonists,  remained 
true  to  the  king  and  aided  the  English  when  they  could. 
These  were  called  Tories,  or  loyalists,  and  sometimes  royal- 


FACSIMILE  OF  A  PORTION  OF  THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 

ists.  There  were  many  Tories  in  the  South  and  in  New 
York.  In  other  parts  they  were  less  numerous. 

War  in  the  South.  —  On  the  first  day  of  the  year  1 776 
Norfolk,  Virginia,  was  burned  by  the  royal  governor  from 
his  ships  in  the  harbor,  after  he  had  been  driven  off  the 
soil  by  the  patriots.  In  February  a  fierce  battle  occurred 
at  Moore's  Creek,  North  Carolina,  between  patriots  and 
loyalists,  and  the  patriots  were  successful. 

In  January  Sir  Henry  Clinton  was  sent  to  southern 
waters  with  a  fleet,  and  later  it  was  joined  by  another  fleet 
commanded  by  Sir  Peter  Parker.  The  double  fleet  then 


I/O      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


sailed  to  Charleston  and  made  an  attack.  In  front  of  the 
city  on  Sullivan's  Island  was  a  rude  fort  made  of  logs  and 
sand  bags,  and  the  brave  Americans  behind  them  were  com 
manded  by  a  true  southern  hero,  Colonel  William  Moultrie. 
The  British  bombarded  this  for  many  hours,  but  failing 
to  capture  it,  they  sailed  away  for  New  York,  and  the 
South  was  free  from  invasion  for  three  years.  One  of  the 
bravest  deeds  of  the  war  is  related  of  Sergeant  William 
Jasper  at  Sullivan's  Island.  The  flagstaff  was  broken  by 
a  cannon  ball,  and  the  flag  fell  outside  the  fort.  Jasper 


then  leaped  down  the  bank  in  the  midst  of  the  enemy's 
fire  and  gathered  up  the  fallen  banner.  The  story  is  still 
related  at  the  American  fireside  as  an  example  of  the  hero 
ism  of  the  men  of  the  Revolution. 

New  York  and  Long  Island. — After  the  British  sailed  away 
from  Boston  to  Halifax  Washington  believed  that  when  they 
returned  they  would  aim  to  strike  New  York,  and  he  removed 
his  army  thither.  His  surmise  proved  correct.  Howe  re 
turned  from  Halifax  and  was  joined  by  Clinton's  fleet  and  an 
other  large  English  fleet.  The  intention  of  the  British  was 


NEW  YORK   AND    LONG   ISLAND 


I/I 


to  cut  off  New  England  from  the  South  by  occupying  New 
York  and  conquering  the  Hudson  Valley.  But  before  pro 
ceeding  further  the  British  offered  the  olive  branch  :  the 
king  offered  to  pardon  all  who  would  lay  down  their  arms 
and  assist  in  restoring  order.  But  the  Americans  would 
accept  nothing  short  of  independence.  Washington,  oc 
cupying  Manhattan  Island,  sent  several  thousand  men  to 
hold  Brooklyn  Heights.  Howe  attacked  the  Americans  and 
a  desperate  fight,  known  as  the  battle  of  Long  Island, 


occurred.  The  British  were  successful  and  captured 
eleven  hundred  Americans,  including  their  commander, 
General  Sullivan.  Howe  might  have  captured  the  entire 
American  army  by  assault,  but  he  settled  down  to  a 
siege.  Next  morning  (August  30)  his  prey  had  escaped. 
Washington,  with  remarkable  skill,  had  taken  his  army 
across  East  River  in  a  dense  fog  and  landed  it  safely  on 
Manhattan  Island. 

Howe  crossed  to  New  York,  and  Washington,  whose  army 
was  much  smaller  than  Howe's,  fell  back  to  the  Harlem 


1/2      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

River.1  Here  a  light  battle  took  place,  and  in  October  a 
greater  one  at  White  Plains,  the  British  loss  being  much 
greater  than  the  American.  Howe  then  retired  down  the 
river  and  Washington  took  a  position  at  North  Castle,  near 
White  Plains. 

Retreat  across  New  Jersey.  —  A  most  serious  disaster 
befell  the  Americans  in  November.  Fort  Washington,  on 
the  upper  end  of  Manhattan,  and  occupied  by  three  thou 
sand  troops,  was  stormed  by  the  British  army  and  captured. 
So  bravely  did  the  Americans  defend  the  fort  that  Howe 
lost  five  hundred  men ;  but  the  odds  were  too  great,  and 
the  entire  American  force,  with  all  their  stores,  surrendered 
to  the  enemy.  Soon  after  this  Fort  Lee,  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Hudson,  was  also  captured ;  but  the  garrison 
escaped. 

Washington  was  deeply  disheartened,  and  many  believed 
that  the  patriot  cause  was  lost.  He  had  crossed  the  Hud 
son  with  half  his  army,  about  six  thousand  men,  leaving 
the  other  half  at  North  Castle,  under  General  Charles  Lee. 
He  then  urged  Lee  to  join  him  with  the  rest  of  the  army, 
but  Lee  was  at  heart  a  traitor  to  the  patriot  cause,  and  he 
refused  to  move.  Lord  Cornwallis,  with  a  British  army, 
started  in  pursuit  of  Washington,  who  retreated  across  the 
Jersey  plains  to  the  banks  of  the  Delaware.  Lee  at  last 
crossed  the  Hudson  when  too  late  to  do  any  good. 

Washington  had  crossed  the  Delaware  and  saved  his 
army  from  capture.  Great  was  the  excitement  in  Phila- 

1  While  Washington's  army  was  retiring  before  Howe  on  Manhattan,  a  large 
portion  of  it  was  no  doubt  saved  from  capture  by  the  clever  strategy  of  a 
woman.  Mrs.  Murray,  a  wealthy  lady  of  New  York,  asked  General  Howe  to 
take  luncheon  at  her  home,  her  object  being  to  delay  him.  Thinking  her  a 
loyalist,  Howe  did  so,  and  spent  several  hours.  Meantime,  four  thousand 
patriot  soldiers  under  Putnam,  who  had  been  in  imminent  danger  of  capture, 
made  their  escape. 


THE    VICTORY   AT   TRENTON 


173 


delphia  when  it   was  known  that   the    patriot   army  was 
fleeing  toward  the  city. 

The  Victory  at  Trenton.  —  Cornwallis  felt  so  sure  that 
the  British  had  won  and  the  war  was  over  that  he  prepared 
to  return  to  England.  But  he  soon  changed  his  mind. 
Washington  was  preparing  for  a  bold  stroke.  Twelve  hun 


dred  Hessian  soldiers  were  at  Trenton  under  Colonel  Rail, 
and  Washington  decided  to  cross  the  river  and  attack 
them. 

On  a  dark  night  (Christmas  night,  1776)  he  crossed  the 
Delaware,  covered  with  blocks  of  floating  ice,  and  marched 
silently  toward  the  city.  The  attack  was  made  at  day 
break.  The  Hessians  were  completely  surprised,  and  in 
a  short  time  the  whole  force  was  captured.  The  people 


SCHOOL   HISTORY  OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

rejoiced  and  again  took  heart  when  they  heard  the  joyful 
news. 

Cornwallis  gave  up  his  trip  to  England  and  hastened  to 
Trenton  with  another  army.  He  now  determined  to  crowd 
Washington  to  the  bank  of  the  Delaware  and  capture  his 
whole  army.  "  At  last  we  have  run  down  the  old  fox  and 
will  bag  him  in  the  morning,"  said  the  British  commander. 

But  Washington  was  too  wily  to  be  caught  in  such  a 
trap.  With  wonderful  skill  he  marched  his  army  silently 
around  the  enemy's  flank,  and  when  Cornwallis  awoke  in 
the  morning,  the  Americans  were  miles  away,  marching 
toward  Princeton.  Near  Princeton  they  met  a  British 
force,  which  they  soon  put  to  flight,  after  which  they  took 
up  winter  quarters  at  Morristown. 

In  a  few  weeks  Washington  had  done  a  wonderful  work. 
He  had  won  two  victories,  taken  many  prisoners,  increased 
his  own  army,  and,  above  all,  had  infused  a  new  and  living 
hope  in  the  hearts  of  the  patriots  from  Maine  to  Georgia 
and  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea. 


SUMMARY 

For  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  the  bond  of  good  will 
between  England  and  the  colonies  was  unbroken,  though  the  two 
peoples  were  constantly  growing  apart. 

Causes  of  Separation.  —  An  attempt  by  England  to  enforce  the 
navigation  laws,  to  keep  a  standing  army  in  America,  and  to  tax  the 
colonies  caused  the  war.  These  things  brought  about  the  resistance 
to  the  Writs  of  Assistance  and  to  the  Stamp  Act.  The  people  were 
first  led  to  oppose  the  oppressive  acts  by  James  Otis  and  Patrick 
Henry,  followed  by  Samuel  Adams.  The  Stamp  Act  Congress  met  in 
New  York  in  1765. 

Parliament  repealed  the  Stamp  Act,  but  laid  a  duty  on  tea,  etc.  The 
Americans  destroyed  the  tea  in  Boston  Harbor,  whereupon  Parliament 
pissed  some  harsh  measures,  one  of  which,  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  closed 


THE   FIRST   CONTINENTAL   CONGRESS  175 

the  port  of  Boston,  and  another  annulled  the  charter  of  Massachusetts. 
The  other  colonies  hastened  to  the  rescue  of  Massachusetts. 

The  First  Continental  Congress  met  in  Philadelphia,  September, 
1774.  Its  most  important  work  was  the  sending  of  a  petition  to  the 
king  and  the  forming  of  an  association  to  carry  out  a  policy  of  non- 
intercourse  with  England  until  colonial  rights  were  restored. 

The  Second  Congress  met  in  May,  1775.  It  adopted  the  army 
gathered  at  Boston,  made  Washington  its  commander,  again  petitioned 
the  king,  and  authorized  the  colonies  to  set  up  governments. 

The  First  Armed  Conflicts.  —  The  Americans  were  successful  at  Lex 
ington  and  Concord,  April  19, 1775.  The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  occurred 
on  June  17,  after  which  Washington  took  charge  of  the  army,  and  some 
months  later  forced  Howe  to  evacuate  Boston. 

In  the  South  the  patriots  were  successful  at  Moore's  Creek  and 
drove  the  British  from  Charleston.  Howe  reached  New  York  in 
August,  1776,  defeated  the  patriots  on  Long  Island,  occupied  New 
York,  and  captured  Forts  Washington  and  Lee. 

Congress  adopted  the  Declaration  of  Independence  on  July  4,  1776. 
Washington  retreated  across  New  Jersey,  but,  recrossing  the  Delaware, 
captured  the  Hessian  army  at  Trenton,  eluded  Cornwallis,  won  the 
battle  of  Princeton,  and  took  up  winter  quarters  at  Morristown. 

NOTES 

Paul  Revere.  —  One  of  the  most  heroic  minor  figures  of  the  early  years  of  the 
Revolutionary  War  was  Paul  Revere,  and  his  name  has  received  a  permanent  historic 
setting  in  the  poem  of  Longfellow.  He  was  of  Huguenot  descent ;  he  served  in  the 
French  War  as  lieutenant  of  artillery.  By  profession  he  was  a  goldsmith  and  copper 
plate  engraver,  and  he  engraved  the  plates  for  the  "  Continental  money."  In  1775 
he  was  sent  to  Philadelphia  to  learn  to  make  powder,  and  on  his  return  he  set  up 
a  powder  mill.  He  also  became  a  manufacturer  of  church  bells  and  cannon. 
Revere  was  forty  years  old  at  the  time  of  his  famous  midnight  ride.  He  was  cap 
tured  by  the  British  while  on  that  ride,  between  Lexington  and  Concord,  but  was 
soon  set  free.  He  lived  nearly  forty  years  after  the  Revolution,  dying  in  1818,  at 
the  age  of  eighty-three. 

Burke  on  the  Tea  Tax.  —  The  principle  for  which  the  colonies  contended  was 
not  misunderstood  in  England.  In  reply  to  the  statement  that  the  tax  on  tea  was 
trifling,  Edmund  Burke  (April  19,  1768)  replied :  "  Could  anything  be  a  subject  of 
more  just  claim  to  America  than  to  see  you  go  out  of  the  plain  high  road  of  finance 
.  .  .  merely  for  the  sake  of  insulting  your  colonies  ?  No  man  ever  doubted  that 
the  commodity  of  tea  could  bear  an  imposition  of  threepence.  But  no  commodity 
will  bear  threepence,  or  will  bear  a  penny,  when  the  general  feelings  of  men  are 


176       SCHOOL  HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

irritated,  and  two  millions  of  people  are  resolved  not  to  pay.  The  feelings  of  the 
colonists  are  the  same  as  those  of  Mr.  Hampden  when  called  on  for  the  payment 
of  twenty  shillings.  Would  twenty  shillings  have  ruined  Mr.  Hampden's  fortune  ? 
No !  but  the  payment  of  half  twenty  shillings,  on  the  principle  it  was  demanded, 
would  have  made  him  a  slave." 

Samuel  Adams  and  the  Election  of  the  First  Congress.  — The  Massachusetts 
assembly  was  very  anxious  to  choose  delegates  to  the  Congress  to  meet  in  Septem 
ber  at  Philadelphia ;  but  it  was  known  that  at  the  first  hint  at  such  business  the 
governor  would  dissolve  the  assembly.  On  June  17,  1774  (made  famous  a  year 
later  at  Bunker  Hill)  the  favorable  moment  came.  The  door  was  locked  and  dele 
gates  were  nominated.  Some  of  the  members  were  frightened  and  sought  to  go 
out,  but  Adams  pocketed  the  key.  At  length  one  of  the  loyalist  members  pretended 
to  be  very  ill  and  was  allowed  to  go.  He  ran  to  the  governor  and  told  the  news. 
Governor  Gage  instantly  sent  his  secretary  with  a  writ  dissolving  the  assembly,  but 
the  secretary  found  the  door  locked.  He  then  read  the  writ  in  a  loud  voice  from 
the  steps  outside.  Meantime  the  assembly  had  elected  four  delegates  —  the  two 
Adamses,  Robert  Treat  Paine,  and  Thomas  Gushing  —  by  a  vote  of  117  to  12.  — See 
Fiske,  Vol.  I,  pp.  104-105. 

Nathan  Hale.  —  After  the  Continental  army  had  reached  Harlem  Heights  above 
New  York,  Washington,  desiring  to  be  made  acquainted  with  the  force  and  prob 
able  purpose  of  the  enemy,  chose  Nathan  Hale,  a  brilliant  young  captain  aged 
twenty-one,  a  graduate  of  Yale,  and  before  the  war,  a  Connecticut  school  teacher, 
for  the  dangerous  task.  Hale  crossed  the  sound  at  Fairfield  in  September,  1776, 
disguised  as  a  school  teacher.  He  reached  New  York,  made  a  careful  study  of  the 
enemy's  fortifications,  drew  plans,  and  was  waiting  for  the  ferry  to  return  by  way  of 
Brooklyn  when  he  was  betrayed  by  a  Tory  kinsman  who  recognized  him.  His 
arrest  followed,  and  Howe  turned  him  over  to  the  inhuman  provost  marshal,  Cun 
ningham,  who  hanged  him  the  next  day  without  a  trial,  and  even  refused  him  the 
services  of  a  clergyman  or  the  use  of  a  Bible.  Hale's  dying  utterance  is  well  known  : 
"  I  regret  that  I  have  but  one  life  to  give  for  my  country." 

REFERENCES 

The  general  histories  of  the  United  States  that  have  been  men 
tioned  ;  Elson,  "  Side  Lights  on  American  History/'  Series  I ;  Fiske, 
"  The  American  Revolution  "  ;  Frothingham,  "  Rise  of  the  Republic  of 
the  United  States  " ;  Lodge,  "  The  Story  of  the  Revolution  "  ;  Tre- 
velyan,  "  The  American  Revolution  "  ;  Hosmer,  "  Samuel  Adams  "  ; 
Hall,  "  Ethan  Allen  "  ;  Autobiography  of  Franklin. 


CHAPTER   X 
THE  REVOLUTION   (Continued) 

A  YEAR  had  passed  since  the  British  had  determined  to 
conquer  the  Hudson  Valley  and  separate  the  colonies ; 
but  nothing  had  yet  been  done  toward  this  end  except  the 
capture  of  Manhattan  Island.  The  British  now  deter 
mined  on  a  desperate  and  final 

STRUGGLE  FOR  THE  HUDSON  VALLEY 

It  was  decided  that  an  army  under  General  Burgoyne 
should  sweep  down  from  Canada,  that  a  small  army  com 
manded  by  Colonel  St.  Leger  should  ascend  the  St.  Law 
rence  to  Lake  Ontario,  land  at  Oswego,  and  conquer  the 
Mohawk  Valley,  and  that  Howe  should  lead  his  army  up 
the  Hudson  to  join  Burgoyne  and  St.  Leger  at  Albany. 
There  were  many  loyalists  in  northern  New  York,  and  it 
was  hoped  that  they  would  rise  in  the  king's  cause.  The 
campaign  was  well  planned,  and  if  properly  carried  out,  it 
is  doubtful  if  the  Americans  could  have  frustrated  it.  But 
the  scheme  failed  through  a  careless  blunder l  in  conse 
quence  of  which  General  Howe  did  not  receive  instructions 
to  move  up  the  Hudson,  and  he  sailed  for  the  Chesapeake 
instead. 

Oriskany  and  Bennington.  —  General  Burgoyne,  with  a 
fine  army  of  eight  thousand  men,  sailed  up  Lake  Cham- 

1  For  an  account  of  this  curious  blunder  see  Elson's  History,  p.  269. 

N  177 


\ 


178      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE  UNITED   STATES 

plain,  and  in  a  short  time  he  had  captured  Fort  Ticonder- 
oga,  from  which  the  British  flag  had  been  dragged  by 
Ethan  Allen  two  years  before.  The  British  were  elated 

over  this,  but  in 
fact  the  Ameri 
cans  had  little 
need  of  the  fort, 
and  it  was  a 
source  of  weak 
ness  to  Bur- 
goyne,  as  it  re 
quired  a  large 
detachment  of 
his  army  to  hold 
it.  The  cap 
ture,  further 
more,  caused  the 
people  of  New 
York  and  New 
England  to  rise 
in  defense  of 
their  country. 
General  Philip 
Schuylerwasthe 
American  commander  in  the  North,  and  recruits  poured 
into  his  camp  by  thousands. 

Meantime  St.  Leger  had  landed;  but  he  was  met  at 
Oriskany  by  a  small  American  army  under  General  Nicho 
las  Herkimer,  an  aged  German  resident.  The  battle  was 
one  of  the  most  terrific  of  the  war.  Herkimer  received 
a  mortal  wound,  but  his  army  won,  and  two  weeks  later 
St.  Leger  fled  back  to  Canada. 

Bennington  was  a  village  in  northern  Vermont  where  the 


GENERAL  BURGOYNE 


BJRMAY  &  CO.,   N.Y 


SCENE   OF  WAR  IN  THE  NORTHERN  AND  MIDDLE  STATES. 


SARATOGA;  THE  SURRENDER  OF  BURGOYNE  179 


Americans  had  collected  large  stores, 
was  beginning  to  surfer  from  hunger, 
and  Burgoyne  sent  about  eight  hun 
dred  men  to  capture  the  stores  at 
Bennington.  But  John  Stark  was 
in  the  neighborhood.  He  soon  had 
a  strong  force  to  oppose  the  Eng 
lish.  "  They  are  ours  to-night,  or 
Molly  Stark  is  a  widow,"  said  the 
dauntless  Stark.  The  battle  of 
Bennington  continued  for  some 
hours  when  nearly  the  whole  British 
force  was  captured. 

Saratoga;  the  Surrender  of  Bur 
goyne. —  The  news  from  Oriskany 
and  Bennington  was  most  disheart 
ening  to  Burgoyne,  and  he  longed 
for  Howe,  but  Howe  was  far  away 
on  the  banks  of  the  Brandywine. 
Burgoyne's  march  was  impeded  by 
Schuyler,  who  felled  trees  and 
rolled  heavy  bowlders  in  his  path. 
Schuyler  was  at  length  succeeded 
by  General  Horatio  Gates,  an  un 
warranted  occurrence,  for  Schuyler 
was  an  abler  soldier  and  truer  patriot 
than  Gates. 

Burgoyne  pressed  on  and  soon 
found  himself  in  a  trap,  for  the 
Americans  were  fast  surrounding 
him.  There  was  no  escape  but  to 
fight  his  way  to  liberty.  This  he 
attempted  with  great  bravery.  On 


The  British  army 


Saratoga 


ISO      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

September  19  the  first  battle  of  Saratoga  occurred,  with 
no  great  advantage  to  either  side.  Eighteen  days  later 
a  second  battle  took  place  on  the  same  ground.  Bur- 

goyne  was  play 
ing  a  losing  game. 
None  of  his  losses 
could  be  replaced, 
while  the  Ameri 
can  army  was  in 
creasing  every 
hour.  When  the 
brave  British  gen 
eral  found  that  he 
could  hold  out  no 
longer,  he  offered 
to  surrender  his 
army.  The  sur 
render  was  ac 
complished  on 
October  17,  1777, 
when  5799  men 
laid  down  their 
arms  and  became 

prisoners  of  war.  The  entire  British  loss  in  the  campaign 
exceeded  ten  thousand  men. 

The  American  victory  was  one  of  great  importance. 
This  event  has  been  considered  the  turning  point  in  the 
war.  From  this  time  it  was  generally  believed  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic  that  in  the  end  American  independ 
ence  would  be  achieved.1 

1  One  effect  of  the  surrender  was  that  England  offered  to  yield  every 
point  at  issue,  except  independence.  But  it  was  too  late.  The  offer  was 
rejected. 


1 82      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


MOVEMENTS  OF  WASHINGTON 

After  Washington  had  won  his  brilliant  success  at 
Trenton  and  Princeton,  he  settled  at  Morristown,  as  we 
have  seen.  Here  he  remained  till  the  spring  of  1777. 
When  Burgoyne  came  out  of  Canada  into  New  York, 
Washington  did  not  go  north  to  meet  him  (though  he 


.Reading 


VALLEY  FORGE ,  PHILADELPHIA 

AND 


BRA  ND  YWINE , 


Bormay  it  C»..X.Y. 


sent  as  many  troops  as  he  could  spare),  as  it  was  necessary 
to  remain  in  New  Jersey  to  watch  Howe.  Had  Washing 
ton  left  New  Jersey  unprotected  Howe  would  have  dashed 
across  the  state  to  Philadelphia. 

Howe  attempted,  late  in  the  spring,  to  cross  New  Jersey, 
but  Washington  planted  his  army  in  the  way.  Though 
his  army  was  inferior  to  Howe's,  he  harassed  the  British 
on  all  sides,  and  at  length  drove  them  back  to  New  York, 


BRANDYWINE  AND  GERMANTOWN 


183 


Brandy  wine  and  Germantown.  —  Howe  then  embarked 
on  the  sea,  and  sailed  to  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  landing 
near  Elkton,  Maryland,  late  in  August.  Washington, 
learning  of  this  move,  marched  his  army  southward  and 
met  Howe  at 
a  little  stream 
called  the  Bran 
dy  wine,  in  south 
ern  Pennsylva 
nia.  Here,  at 
a  place  called 
Chadd's  Ford, 
was  fought  the 
battle  of  Brandy- 
wine,  one  of  the 
hardest  battles 
of  the  war.  The 
British  were 
victorious,  and 
Howe  moved  on 
toward  Philadel 
phia.  Washing 
ton  so  harassed 
the  enemy  that 
it  took  Howe 
fifteen  days  to  march  twenty-five  miles.  Washington  knew 
that  the  capital  had  to  be  given  up,  but  his  object  was  to 
prevent  aid  being  sent  to  Burgoyne.  On  September  26 
Howe  entered  Philadelphia,  Congress  having  fled  to  Lan 
caster.  Howe  then  placed  most  of  his  army  at  German- 
town,  just  north  of  Philadelphia,  and  here  Washington 
gave  battle  on  October  4. 

The  Americans  had  peculiar  advantages,  and  might  have 


SIR  WILLIAM  HOWE 


1 84      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


won  a  victory  at  Germantown  but  for  a  dense  fog,  which 
caused  a  sad  blunder  —  the  firing  of  one  division  of  the 
army  upon  another.  This  brought  much  confusion,  and 
gave  the  victory  to  the  enemy.  This  battle  occurred  thir 
teen  days  before  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  at  Saratoga. 
Howe's  army  now  settled  snugly  in  Philadelphia  for  the 
winter.  Washington  led  the  patriot  army  to  Valley  Forge. 
Valley  Forge.  —  The  British  army  had  an  enjoyable 
winter  in  Philadelphia.  They  spent  the  time  in  a  round 

of  gayeties.  Franklin 
wrote  from  Paris  that 
Howe  had  not  taken 
Philadelphia,  but  Phila 
delphia  had  taken 
Howe. 

Valley  Forge,  a  val 
ley  among  the  hills 
that  border  the  winding 
Schuylkill,  is  twenty 
miles  from  Philadel 
phia.  To  this  spot 
Washington  led  his 
army  of  eleven  thou 
sand  men  in  December,  1 777.  Every  reader  knows  the  story 
of  the  suffering  at  Valley  Forge.  Many  of  the  men  could  be 
traced  in  the  snow  by  the  blood  that  oozed  through  broken 
shoes.  Many  were  without  blankets,  and  had  to  sit  by  the 
fire  all  night  to  keep  from  freezing.  Washington  wrote 
Congress  that  he  had  2898  men  "  unfit  for  duty  because 
they  are  barefoot  and  otherwise  naked."  There  was  an 
abundance  of  food  and  clothing  in  the  country,  and  the 
army  suffered  solely  for  want  of  better  management. 
The  first  weeks  were  spent  in  building  tents  and  log 


WASHINGTON'S  HEADQUARTERS  AT  VALLEY 
FORGE 


VALLEY   FORGE 


I85 


huts  ;  later  the  time  was  spent  in  drilling  and  preparing  for 
battle.  The  troops  were  drilled  by  Baron  Steuben',  who  had 
recently  come  from  Europe.  This  noble  old  German,  who 
had  been  schooled  on  the  staff  of  Frederick  the  Great, 
spent  many  days  drilling  the  men,  and  when  they  left 
Valley  Forge,  they  could  measure  up  to  the  standard  of 
the  British  regulars. 


WASHINGTON  AT  VALLEY  FORGE 

It  was  during  this  fateful  winter  that  a  plot  to  depose 
Washington,  known  as  "the  Conway  Cabal"  took  place. 
It  was  hatched  by  Thomas  Conway,  who  had  a  grievance 
against  Washington.  It  was  not  successful,  and  afterward 
Conway  wrote  Washington  that  he  sincerely  regretted  what 
he  had  done. 


186      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Battle  of  Monmouth.  —  General  Howe  was  not  vigorous 
enough  to  please  the  authorities,  and  late  in  the  spring  of 
1778  he  was  superseded  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  who  at 
once  determined  to  abandon  Philadelphia.  Sending  three 
thousand  loyalists  to  New  York  by  sea,  he  started  across 
New  Jersey  with  his  army.  The  American  army  was  soon 
in  hot  pursuit.  It  had  been  recruited,  and,  thanks  to 
Steuben,  it  was  well  trained  and  anxious  for  battle.  Clin 
ton  would  have  avoided  an  engagement,  but  Washington 
overtook  him  at  Monmouth,  New  Jersey,  and  here  on  the 
28th  of  June  a  desperate  battle  was  fought.  The  Ameri 
cans  came  near  winning  a  brilliant  victory,  and  would 
certainly  have  done  so,  but  for  the  treachery  of  Charles 
Lee,  who  refused  to  obey  the  orders  of  his  chief.  Neither 
side  gained  much  advantage.  Night  ended  the  battle, 
and  Washington  intended  to  renew  it  in  the  morning  ;  but 
Clinton  eluded  him  in  the  darkness,  and  hastened  on  to 
New  York. 

FOREIGN  AID 

The  colonies  received  little  aid  from  abroad  till  the  war 
had  continued  two  or  three  years,  and  it  'is  probable  that 
they  would  have  won  their  independence  had  they  been 
left  wholly  to  themselves.  Nevertheless,  when  help  came, 
it  was  received  most  gratefully.  France  was  the  first  to 
lend  a  helping  hand,  chiefly  through  an  unfriendly  feeling 
toward  England,  which  had  taken  Canada  from  her  in  the 
late  war.  At  first  France  encouraged  the  Americans 
secretly,  sending  military  stores  worth  $200,000.  Two 
Americans  had  long  been  in  Paris  laboring  to  secure 
recognition  from  the  French  government.  Soon  after  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  passed,  Benjamin  Frank 
lin  was  sent  to  join  them.  He  was  already  well  known  in 


FRIENDS   FROM   ABROAD 


I87 


France,  and  was  warmly  received.  A  great  Frenchman 
had  said  of  him  that  he  could  "  snatch  the  lightning  from 
the  sky  and  the  scepter  from  tyrants."  1 

Faithfully  Franklin  labored  for  many  months  to  mold 
French  opinion 
and  secure  the 
recognition  of  the 
United  States  as 
an  independent 
nation.  He  suc 
ceeded  soon  after 
the  news  of  the 
surrender  of  Bur- 
goyne  reached 
Paris,  and  the  fol 
lowing  February, 
while  Washington 
was  at  Valley 
Forge,  the  king 
of  France  made 
a  treaty  with  the 
United  States. 
This  caused  war 
between  France 
and  England,  and  in  the  end  contributed  greatly  to  Ameri 
can  independence. 

Friends  from  Abroad.  —  Among  foreigners  who  came  to 
aid  the  colonists  in  the  war  the  most  honored  was  the  Mar 
quis  de  Lafayette,  a  young  French  nobleman  who  left  his 
youthful  wife  in  his  native  land  and  embarked  in  his  own 
vessel  for  America,  to  offer  his  life  in  the  cause  of  liberty. 
Arriving  in  the  spring  of  1777,  he  joined  the  army,  and 

1  Franklin  had  invented  the  lightning  rod. 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN 


188      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF    THE   UNITED    STATES 

did  valiant  service  to  the  end  of  the  war.  In  all  our  his 
tory  no  other  foreigner  has  ever  stood  so  high  in  the  affec 
tions  of  the  American  people  as  Lafayette. 

In  the  same  ship  with  Lafayette  came  Baron  de  Kalb, 
another  Frenchman,  who  fought  nobly  for  American 
liberty  and  lost  his  life  at  the  battle  of  Camden.  Among 
the  names  not  to  be  forgotten  was  that  of  the  Polish  pa 
triot,  Kosciusko,  who,  as  a  youth  of  twenty  years,  joined 
the  army  in  1776.  Still  another  from  this  same  unhappy 
Poland  was  Count  Pulaski,  who  gave  his  life  to  the  cause 
of  liberty  in  the  siege  of  Savannah.  No  foreign  helper 
was  more  useful  than  Baron  Steuben,  whom  we  have  noticed 
at  Valley  Forge.  At  the  close  of  the  war  Steuben  was 
granted  a  pension  and  a  large  tract  of  land  in  northern 
New  York,  and  on  this  estate  he  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  days. 

WAR  ON  THE  FRONTIER 

The  half-settled  wilderness  of  the  frontier  was  the 
scene  of  many  conflicts  during  the  war,  and  often  the 
result  was  the  bloody  massacre  of  innocent  women  and 
children. 

Border  Warfare  in  the  Southwest.  —  At 'the  beginning  of 
the  long  war,  even  before  the  battle  of  Lexington,  a  des 
perate  battle  with  the  Indians  took  place  at  Point  Pleasant, 
on  the  Great  Kanawha  River.  The  Indians  were  beaten 
and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  made  at  Watauga,  and  Ken 
tucky  was  ceded  to  the  white  men.  But  the  royal  gov 
ernor  of  North  Carolina  declared  the  treaty  illegal  and  the 
Indians  were  soon  again  on  the  warpath. 

Among  the  white  men  who  made  this  treaty  was  the 
most  famous  of  American  pioneers,  Daniel  Boone.  Born 


THE   WYOMING   AND   CHERRY   VALLEYS  189 

and  reared  in  the  forest,  Boone  loved  the  wild  life  of  the 
wilderness  above  all  things.  Soon  after  the  treaty  of 
Watauga  was  made,  he  moved  into  Kentucky  and  built  a 
fort  called  Boonesborough.  During  the  last  years  of  the 
war  Boone  figured  in  various  battles,  the  most  destructive 
of  which  was  the  battle  of  the  Blue  Licks,  fought  on  the 
banks  of  the  Licking  River  in  August,  1782. 

Soon  after  this  George  Rogers  Clark  led  an  army  against 
the  Indians  in  western  Ohio  and  so  weakened  them  that 
they  never  again  attempted  to  cross  the  border  into  Ken 
tucky.  But  the  greatest  achievement  of  Clark  had  been 
won  several  years  before.  With  one  hundred  and  eighty 
picked  men  he  traversed  the  swamps  and  prairies  of 
Illinois,  capturing  the  various  posts  without  bloodshed. 
This  region  was  then  added  to  Virginia  and  was  called 
the  county  of  Illinois. 

The  Wyoming  and  Cherry  Valleys.  —  In  north  central 
Pennsylvania  lies  a  beautiful  valley  called  Wyoming. 
Here  some  three  thousand  people  from  Connecticut  had 
settled  before  the  war.  On  the  4th  of  July,  1778,  ex 
actly  two  years  after  the  passing  of  the  great  Declaration, 
this  valley  became  the  scene  of  the  bloodiest  massacre  of 
the  war.  The  Americans  were  overpowered  by  a  band 
of  eight  hundred  Tories  and  Indians  on  July  3,  and  next 
day  the  bloody  work  was  carried  out  with  fiendish  cruelty. 
The  survivors  fled  for  their  lives  and  the  place  became 
for  a  time  a  field  of  desolation. 

In  November  of  the  same  year  a  similar  scene  was 
enacted  at  Cherry  Valley,  in  Otsego  County,  New  York. 
After  the  men  of  the  garrison  had  been  defeated,  the 
fiendish  work  began  and  thirty-two,  mostly  women  and 
children,  were  put  to  death,  while  forty  were  carried  into 
captivity. 


190      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

Washington,  exasperated  at  these  outrages,  determined 
to  strike  a  telling  blow.  In  the  summer  of  1779  he  sent 
General  Sullivan  with  an  army  of  five  thousand  men  into 
the  Indian  country  of  New  York.  On  the  site  of  the  pres 
ent  city  of  Elmira  Sullivan  gave  battle  to  an  army  of  Tories 
and  Indians  much  larger  than  his  own,  and  defeated  them 
with  great  slaughter.  He  then  laid  waste  the  Indian 
country  and  destroyed  more  than  forty  villages.  The 
Iroquois  nation  never  recovered  from  the  fearful  effect  of 
Sullivan's  raid. 

WAR  ON  THE  SEA 

At  the  opening  of  the  war  the  colonies  had  not,  of 
course,  any  national  navy.;  In'.' i  7.7  5  Congress  ordered  the 
building  of  a  navy,  and  the  next  year  thirteen  vessels  were 
completed.  Most  of  these  were  captured  or  burned  before 
the  end  of  the  war,  but  not  until  they  had  done  good  ser 
vice  for  the  country. 

Privateering,  which  is  the  sending  of  privately  owned 
vessels,  armed  for  the  purpose,  against  the  enemy,  was 
extensively  practiced  during  the  Revolution.  Each  colony 
legalized  this  practice  on  the  part  of  its  citizens,  Massachu 
setts  leading  with  more  than  five  hundred  privateers, 
Pennsylvania  following  with  nearly  that  number.  American 
privateers  plowed  the  waters  of  the  English  Channel,  the 
Irish  Sea,  and  of  many  other  parts  of  the  world,  making 
prizes  of  many  English  merchantmen. 

After  France  had  declared  war  against  England  the 
French  navy  was  used  in  aid  of  the  Americans.  In  1777 
Spain  and  in  the  next'year  Holland  declared  war  against 
England,  after  which  the  navies  of  these  countries  were 
also  used  against  the  British. 


JOHN   PAUL   JONES  IQI 

John  Paul  Jones.  —  The  one  famous  American  seaman 
of  the  war  was  John  Paul  Jones,  a  native  of  Scotland,  a 
resident  of  Virginia. 
Jones  with  a  squad 
ron  of  three  ships 
had  a  desperate 
fight  off  the  coast 
of  England  in  Sep 
tember,  I/79-1  In 
the  midst  of  the  bat 
tle  when  the  Ameri 
can  fire  slacked  for 
a  moment  the  Brit 
ish  captain  called 
out,  "  Have  you 
struck  your  colors  ? ' ' 
"  I  have  not  yet  be 
gun  to  fight,"  was 
the  laconic  answer 

of      Tones.      After 

.  ..        .      r  JOHN  PAUL  TONES 

they  had  fought  for 

many  hours  in  the  darkness  the  British  captain  surrendered. 
The  news  of  this  victory  made  a  great  sensation  in  Europe.2 

STONY  POINT  ;  ARNOLD'S  TREASON 

After  the  battle  of    Monmouth,  Washington   did   little 
for  three  years  but  watch  Clinton,  who  held  the  city  of 

1  Jones's  flagship  was  the  Bonhomme  Richard,  French  for  Poor  Richard  of 
Franklin's  almanac. 

2  Jones  afterward  entered  the  service  of  Russia  and  was  knighted.    He  died 
in  Paris  in  1799.     For  more  than  a  hundred  years  his  burial  place  was  un 
known.      In  1905  it  was  discovered  and  the  remains  were  brought  to  the 
United  States. 


BATTLE  BETWEEN  THE  "SERAPIS"  AND  "BONHOMME  RICHARD' 
192 


ARNOLD'S   TREASON 


193 


New  York.  In  May,  1779,  Clinton  went  up  the  Hudson 
and  took  possession  of  Stony  Point,  a  bold,  rocky  promon 
tory  a  few  miles  below  West  Point.  Washington  deter 
mined  to  capture  it,  and  in  July,  1779,  sent  General 
Anthony  Wayne,  often  called  "  Mad  Anthony,"  to  make 
the  attempt.  Stealthily  the  Americans  crept  through  the 
darkness  and  made  a  wild  dash  on  the  sleeping  garrison. 
The  British  sprang  to  arms,  but  were  soon  overpowered 
and  made  prisoners.  Washington  did  not  intend  to  hold 
the  place.  He  destroyed  the  fortifications,  removed  the  can 
non  and  stores,  and  left  Clinton  to  reoccupy  it  at  his  leisure. 

Benedict  Arnold  was  one  of  the  ablest  and  bravest  gen 
erals  in  the  war  and,  at 
first,  one  of  the  most 
trusted.  Valiantly  he 
had  fought  at  Quebec 
and  Saratoga,  being 
severely  wounded  at 
both  places.  But  later, 
after  having  a  quarrel 
with  Congress,  and  be 
ing  in  command  of  West 
Point,  Arnold's  mind  be 
came  filled  with  treason 
and  he  determined  to 
betray  his  country  and 
hand  West  Point  over  to 
the  British. 

He  had  a  long  cor 
respondence  with  Major 
John  Andre  of  the  British  army,  and  the  two  men  met  on  a 
dark  night  in  September,  1780,  on  the  bank  of  the  Hud 
son  near  Stony  Point.  Here  arrangements  were  made  for 


MAJOR  ANDRE 


194      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

the  surrender  of  this  gateway  to  the  Hudson  Valley.  But 
Andre  was  captured  by  three  Americans  while  returning 
to  New  York  and  the  plot  was  disclosed  ere  it  could  be 
carried  out. 

"  Arnold  is  a  traitor  and  has  fled  to  the  British,  whom 
can  we  trust  now  ? "  said  Washington,  while  the  tears  rolled 
down  his  cheeks.  Arnold  had  fled  to  join  Clinton's  army 
and  to  receive  the  price  of  his  treachery,  about  $30,000. 
Andre  was  tried,  convicted  as  a  spy,  and  put  to  death. 
He  was  a  brilliant,  companionable  young  man,  and  Ameri 
cans,  as  well  as  Englishmen,  deplored  the  necessity  of  his 
execution. 

WAR  IN  THE  SOUTH 

We  saw  some  time  ago  that,  near  the  beginning  of  the 
war,  the  South  had  exciting  experiences  at  Moore's  Creek 
and  Charleston,  after  which  there  was  little  warfare  in 
that  section  for  nearly  three  years.  After  playing  a  losing 
game  in  the  Hudson  Valley,  the  British  decided  to  attack 
the  weaker  colonies  of  the  South. 

Georgia  and  the  Carolinas.  —  In  December,  1778,  a 
British  fleet,  bearing  thirty-five  hundred  regulars,  appeared 
in  southern  waters  and  attacked  Savannah.  In  a  short 
time  the  city  surrendered.  The  British  then  overran  the 
state  and  soon  had  possession  of  it.  In  September  of 
the  next  year  Count  d'Estaing  arrived  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Savannah  with  a  French  fleet.  He  joined  with  an 
American  army  under  General  Benjamin  Lincoln  and  they 
bombarded  the  city  for  three  weeks  without  capturing  it. 
The  French  and  Americans  lost  heavily  and,  saddest  of 
all,  the  brave  Pulaski  was  numbered  with  the  slain. 

Two  months  later  a  British  fleet  from  New  York  with 


CAMDEN   AND   KING'S   MOUNTAIN  195 

Clinton  and  Cornwallis  reached  Savannah  and,  landing  a 
large  army,  marched  to  Charleston,  where  Lincoln  had 
transferred  his  army.  Lincoln  attempted  to  defend  the 
city,  but  the  odds  against  him  were  too  great,  and  the  city 
of  Charleston,  with  its  supplies  and  seven  thousand  sol 
diers  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

Clinton  then  sailed  away  and  left  Cornwallis  in  command 
at  the  South.  The  Americans  were  without  an  army  in  that 
section,  but  bands  of  patriots,  led  by  such  men  as  Francis 
Marion,  the  "  Swamp  Fox  " ;  Thomas  Sumter,  the  "  South 
Carolina  Gamecock  " ;  and  Andrew  Pickens,  harassed  the 
British  incessantly.  There  were  many  Tories  in  that 
country  and  frequently  they  had  bloody  encounters  with 
the  patriots. 

Camden  and  King's  Mountain.  —  The  Americans  were 
not  long  without  an  army  in  the  South.  The  militia 
began  to  swarm  from  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  North 
Carolina,  and  Washington  sent  General  Gates,  who  had 
received  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne,  to  command  them. 
Gates  met  the  enemy  near  Camden,  South  Carolina,  in 
August,  1780.  An  unusual  incident  now  occurred.  The 
armies  were  about  ten  miles  apart  and  on  the  same  night 
(August  15)  each  commander  decided  to  creep  upon  the 
other  and  surprise  him  at  daylight.  They  met  halfway 
between,  and  at  the  coming  of  dawn  the  battle  of  Camden 
was  fought.  The  Americans  were  defeated  and  the  army 
scattered. 

This  disaster  was  soon  to  be  followed  by  news  of  a  dif 
ferent  character.  Cornwallis  sent  Major  Ferguson  with 
twelve  hundred  men  to  devastate  the  back  country.  This 
roused  the  frontiersmen  who  lived  in  the  forests  and  among 
the  mountains,  and,  like  the  farmers  at  Concord  and  Sara 
toga,  they  were  soon  marching  thirteen  hundred  strong 


196      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF    THE   UNITED    STATES 


to  meet  the  foe.     Many  of  them  were  hunters  and  Indian 
fighters  and  every  man  was  a  deadly  shot  with  the  rifle. 

They  met  Ferguson  and  his  band  on  a  spur  of  King's 
Mountain  near  the  boundary  between  the  Carolinas.  A 
desperate  battle  was  fought.  The  British  loss  in  killed, 
including  Ferguson,  was  more  than  ten  times  greater  than 
the  American,  and  the  survivors  were  made  prisoners. 
These  hardy  pioneers  did  no  other  service  in  the  war,  but 
it  was  a  noble  action  and  insured  the  final  success  of  the 
Americans. 

Cowpens  and  Guilford.  —  After  the  battle  at  Camden 
General  Greene  was  appointed  to  succeed  Gates.  Greene 

soon  had  a  respect 
able  army  collected. 
One  of  his  first  acts 
was  to  send  the  val 
iant  Daniel  Morgan 
with  nine  hundred 
men  against  Tarle- 
ton,  who  was  known 
as  the  scourge  of  the 
South.  They  met 
at  Cowpens,  not  far 
from  King's  Moun 
tain.  The  battle  was 
short  and  ferocious. 
Tarleton  was  de 
feated  and  his  army 
almost  annihilated. 
Cornwallis  was 

GENERAL  GREENE  much    weakened    by 

the  defeat  of  Tarleton  and  he  wished  to  revive  the  waning 
spirits   of   his   men  by  defeating  Greene.     The  latter,  in 


SCENE  OF  WAR  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


CORNWALLIS    SURRENDERS   AT   YORKTOWN       197 


order  to  lure  Cornwallis  from  his  supplies,  began  an  appar 
ent  retreat.  For  two  hundred  miles  he  fled  before  the 
enemy,  then  turned,  at  Guilford  Courthouse,  North  Caro 
lina,  and  gave  battle. 
The  Americans  lost 
four  hundred  in  the 
battle  and  the  British 
six  hundred.  Corn 
wallis,  seeing  that  he 
was  entrapped,  re 
fused  Greene's  chal 
lenge  for  a  second 
battle,  and  passed 
into  Virginia.  Here 
stood  Lafayette  with 
a  small  army  to  dis 
pute  his  progress. 
Cornwallis  tried  for 
some  months  to  draw 
Lafayette  into  open 
battle,  or  to  entrap 
and  capture  his  army. 

Failing  in  this  he  went  down  the  York  River  and  occupied 
Yorktown. 

Cornwallis  surrenders  at  Yorktown.  —  Washington  was 
about  to  make  an  attack  on  Clinton  in  New  York  when  he 
heard  that  Cornwallis  was  lodged  in  Yorktown.  He  then 
decided,  in  conjunction  with  Count  Rochambeau,  who  had 
brought  a  French  army  to  America,  to  hasten  to  Virginia 
and  capture  the  army  at  Yorktown.  Meantime  a  powerful 
French  fleet,  commanded  by  Count  de  Grasse,  came  up 
from  the  West  Indies  to  prevent  Cornwallis  from  escaping 
by  sea.  Hastening  to  Virginia,  Washington  joined  his 


LAFAYETTE 


198 


THE   TREATY   QF   PEACE  199 

army  with  that  of  Lafayette  ;  Yorktown  was  surrounded 
and  Cornwallis  was  shut  up  in  the  town.  Early  in 
October  the  American-French  army  began  the  bombard 
ment,  and  on  the  i/th,  four  years  to  the  day  after 
the  surrender  of  Burgoyne,  the  white  flag  was  seen  waving 
over  the  parapet.  Two  days  later  the  surrender  was 
effected,  and  Lord  Cornwallis  with  his  army  of  eight  thou- 


LORD  CORNWALLIS 

sand  men  became  prisoners  of  war.  The  rejoicing  through 
out  America  was  loud  and  long ;  everybody  saw  that  the 
war  was  over  and  that  America  had  won  its  independence. 
The  Treaty  of  Peace.  —  The  Revolution  had  two  great 
results  in  world  politics:  i.  It  gave  birth  to  the  greatest 
Republic  in  history,  and  2.  It  wrested  the  governing 
power  in  England  from  the  king,  whose  power  was  greatly 
weakened  by  his  inability  to  conquer  the  colonies,  and  re 
stored  it  to  Parliament. 


200      SCHOOL    HISTORY    OF    THE   UNITED    STATES 


The  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  Paris  on  September  3, 
1783.  The  Americans  who  took  part  in  its  framing  were 
Benjamin  Franklin,  John  Jay,  and  John  Adams.  Next  to 
independence,  which  was  a  foregone  conclusion,  the  one 
great  victory  won  by  the  Americans  was  the  securing  of 


THE  SIEGE  OF 


Headquarter 


AMERICAN      FOR  C  ES 


the  Mississippi  River  instead  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains, 
as  the  western  boundary  of  the  country.  The  new-born 
nation,  as  now  defined,  extended  from  the  Great  Lakes  to 
Florida  and  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  A 
princely  domain  it  was,  and  its  possession  by  the  Ameri 
cans  gave  them  the  fondest  hopes  of  national  greatness  in 
the  future. 

SUMMARY 

The  British  determined  to  conquer  the  Hudson  Valley  by  sending 
an  army  commanded  by  Burgoyne  down  from  Canada  and  another 
under  Howe  up  the  river.  But  the  plan  miscarried ;  Howe  sailed  for 
the  Chesapeake  and  Burgoyne  was  captured,  October  17,  1777. 


THE  UNITED  STATES 
At  the  Close  of  the  Revolution, 

Showing  Western  Land  Claims  of  States. 


THE    BARONESS   RIEDESEL  2OI 

Howe  landed  and  moved  to  the  banks  of  the  Brandywine,  where 
Washington  offered  him  battle  and  was  defeated.  Howe  then  entered 
Philadelphia,  and  again  Washington  gave  battle  at  Germantown. 
Howe  spent  the  winter  in  Philadelphia,  and  Washington  led  his  army 
to  Valley  Forge.  France  made  a  treaty  with  the  United  States  in  Feb 
ruary,  1778. 

Clinton,  who  succeeded  Howe  in  the  spring  of  1778,  evacuated  Phila 
delphia  ;  Washington  followed,  and  in  June  the  battle  of  Monmouth 
was  fought.  After  this  Clinton  remained  at  New  York  and  Washington 
at  White  Plains  for  nearly  three  years. 

The  seat  of  war  was  transferred  to  the  South.  Gates  became  the 
American  commander,  and  was  defeated  at  Camden.  Greene  suc 
ceeded  him,  and  at  length  Cornwallis  settled  at  Yorktown.  Washing 
ton  now  hastened  from  New  York  to  Virginia,  a  French  fleet  guarded 
the  sea,  and  Cornwallis  was  forced  to  surrender  (October  19,  1781). 

The  treaty  of  peace,  signed  at  Paris  in  1783,  acknowledged  the  inde 
pendence  of  the  United  States,  and  made  the  Mississippi  River  the 
western  boundary.  The  two  chief  results  of  the  war  was  the  giving 
birth  to  the  United  States  as  a  nation  and  the  restoration  of  the  British 
government  to  Parliament. 

NOTES 

The  Baroness  Riedesel. —  The  wife  of  Baron  Riedesel,  one  of  Burgoyne's 
ablest  generals,  who  accompanied  her  husband  throughout  the  memorable  Saratoga 
campaign,  was  a  woman  of  rare  beauty  and  accomplishments.  She  kept  an  elabo 
rate  diary  that  gives  a  remarkable  insight  into  the  daily  life  of  the  army.  She  tells 
how  the  soldiers  at  first  were  "  very  merry,  singing  songs  and  panting  for  action," 
and  how  terrible  was  the  suffering  just  before  the  surrender.  From  this  diary, 
describing  incidents  of  the  surrender,  we  take  the  following :  "  As  I  passed  through 
the  American  [lines]  I  observed,  and  this  was  a  great  consolation  to  me,  that  no 
one  eyed  us  with  looks  of  resentment ;  but  they  all  greeted  us  and  even  showed 
compassion.  When  I  drew  near  the  tents,  a  handsome  man  approached  me,  took 
my  children  and  hugged  and  kissed  them.  '  You  tremble,'  said  he,  addressing 
himself  to  me, '  be  not  afraid.  .  .  .  You  will  be  very  much  embarrassed  to  eat  with 
all  these  gentlemen ;  come  with  your  children  to  my  tent.  .  .  .'  I  now  found  that 
he  was  General  Schuyler.  Some  days  after  this  we  arrived  at  Albany,  where  we  so 
often  wished  ourselves  ;  but  we  did  not  enter  it  as  we  expected  we  should  —  victors  ! 
We  were  received  by  the  good  General  Schuyler,  his  wife,  and  daughters,  not  as 
enemies,  but  kind  friends :  and  they  treated  us  with  the  most  marked  attention  and 
politeness,  as  they  did  General  Burgoyne,  who  had  caused  General  Schuyler's 
beautifully  finished  house  to  be  burnt.  In  fact,  they  behaved  like  persons  of 
exalted  minds.  General  Burgoyne  was  struck  with  General  Schuyler's  generosity, 


202      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

and  said  to  him,  '  You  show  me  great  kindness,  though  I  have  done  you  much 
injury.'  '  That  was  the  fate  of  war,' replied  the  brave  man;  'let  us  say  no  more 
about  it.'  "  —  See  Elson's  History,  p.  288. 

Arnold's  Strategy. —  Immediately  after  the  battle  of  Oriskany,  Schuyler  sent 
Benedict  Arnold  with  twelve  hundred  men  to  the  rescue  of  Fort  Stanwix.  While 
en  route  he  captured  several  Tory  spies,  among  whom  was  a  half-witted  fellow 
named  Van  Yost  Cuyler.  All  were  condemned  to  death.  The  mother  and  brother 
of  Cuyler,  hearing  of  this,  hastened  to  the  camp  to  plead  for  his  life.  At  length 
Arnold  offered  him  his  freedom  if  he  would  go  to  the  camp  of  St.  Leger  and  spread 
the  report  that  Burgoyne  was  totally  defeated  and  that  a  great  American  army  was 
coming  to  the  rescue  of  Fort  Stanwix.  Cuyler  agreed,  and  his  brother  was  detained 
as  a  hostage  to  be  put  to  death  in  case  of  his  failure.  Cuyler  did  his  part  well. 
With  a  dozen  bullet  holes  in  his  coat  he  ran  into  the  British  camp  and  declared 
that  a  great  American  host  was  close  at  hand,  and  that  he  had  barely  escaped  with 
his  life.  He  was  known  to  many  of  the  British  as  a  Tory,  and  they  readily 
believed  his  story.  The  Indians  instantly  took  fright  and  began  to  desert.  The 
panic  soon  spread  to  the  regulars,  the  camp  became  a  pandemonium,  and  ere 
noon  of  the  next  day,  the  whole  army  was  in  full  flight  to  Canada.  —  See  Fiske, 
Vol.  I,  p.  294. 

Israel  Putnam.  —  General  Putnam,  farmer,  innkeeper,  and  soldier,  though 
almost  threescore  at  the  opening  of  the  war,  and  never  a  master  of  military  science, 
was  yet  one  of  the  most  heroic  and  picturesque  figures  of  the  war.  He  commanded 
a  body  of  rangers  in  the  French  and  Indian  War,  was  present  at  the  capture  of 
Montreal,  and  of  Havana,  Cuba,  and  was  a  colonel  in  Bradstreet's  Western  expedi 
tion  against  Pontiac  in  1764.  In  the  French  War  he  was  taken  captive  by  the 
Indians,  bound  to  a  tree  till  the  battle  had  ceased,  and  then  taken  into  the  forest 
to  be  tortured  to  death.  He  was  stripped  and  tied  to  a  sapling ;  and  the  fagots  piled 
at  his  feet  were  already  ablaze  when  a  French  officer  dashed  through  the  savage 
horde,  rescued  Putnam,  and  carried  him  to  Montreal,  whence  he  was  exchanged. 

The  best-known  and  perhaps  the  most  daring  feat  in  Putnam's  checkered  life 
was  his  riding  down  a  precipice  at  West  Greenwich,  Connecticut.  He  had  but  one 
hundred  and  fifty  men,  and  was  attacked  by  Governor  Tryon  with  ten  times  that 
number.  Ordering  his  men  to  retire  to  a  swamp  inaccessible  to  cavalry,  he,  on  the 
near  approach  of  the  enemy,  rode  down  a  hundred  stone  steps  that  had  been  cut 
into  the  solid  rock  for  foot  passengers. 

Captivity  of  Ethan  Allen.  —  In  the  early  part  of  the  war,  and  not  long  after  his 
bold  capture  of  Ticonderoga,  Ethan  Allen,  as  stated  in  the  text,  was  made  prisoner 
and  carried  in  irons  to  England.  His  treatment  was  brutal  in  the  extreme,  but  his 
spirit  was  unconquered.  On  one  occasion  he  knocked  an  officer  down  for  spitting 
in  his  face.  The  captain  who  brought  him  back  to  New  York,  however,  was  a 
humane  man,  and  Allen  became  greatly  attached  to  him,  and  saved  his  life  by  pre 
venting  a  mutiny  among  the  prisoners  on  the  ship.  Allen  was  released  on  parole, 
the  condition  being  that  he  must  not  leave  New  York.  Meantime  every  effort  was 
made  to  induce  him  to  join  the  British  ranks,  but  no  power  could  move  him. 
Among  other  things  he  was  offered  a  large  tract  of  land  in  New  Hampshire  or 
Connecticut  when  the  country  should  be  conquered.  His  answer  was  characteristic. 


EARLY   LIFE   OF   FRANKLIN  203 

He  said  it  reminded  him  of  an  incident  related  in  Scripture,  where  the  devil  took 
Christ  to  the  top  of  a  high  mountain  and  offered  him  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  world, 
"  when  all  the  while  he  had  not  one  foot  of  land  on  earth." 

Early  Life  of  Franklin.  —  Benjamin  Franklin  was  the  only  American  who  was 
famous  throughout  Europe  before  the  coming  of  the  Revolution.  He  was  born  in 
Boston  in  1706,  and  was  the  son  of  a  tallow-chandler.  At  an  early  age  he  was 
apprenticed  to  his  elder  brother,  a  printer,  and  while  in  the  printing  office,  he 
acquired  a  great  fondness  for  books.  But  he  and  his  brother  could  not  agree,  and 
when  Benjamin  was  seventeen,  he  ran  away  from  Boston  and  went  to  New  York. 
After  walking  the  streets  of  that  city  for  some  days,  seeking  employment  and  not 
finding  it,  he  crossed  New  Jersey  on  foot  to  Philadelphia,  and  here  he  made  his 
home.  He  was  a  sorry-looking  fellow  when  he  reached  Philadelphia,  but  soon 
found  employment,  and  in  less  than  a  year  he  knew  the  leading  men  of  the  colony. 
When  he  was  only  eighteen,  the  governor  of  Pennsylvania  sent  him  on  a  voyage  to 
London  to  purchase  printing  materials.  Franklin  remained  in  the  British  capital 
for  a  year  and  a  half,  working  at  his  trade.  Returning  to  Philadelphia,  he  set  up 
a  printing  press  of  his  own,  and  it  was  not  long  until  he  became  the  most  promi 
nent  person  in  the  colony,  and  so  he  continued  for  more  than  half  a  century.  In 
1732  he  began  printing  "  Poor  Richard's  Almanac  "  and  continued  it  for  twenty-six 
years.  It  became  very  popular  and  many  of  its  quaint  sayings  are  still  well  known. 
A  few  of  Poor  Richard's  sayings  are  as  follows  :  — 

"  God  helps  them  that  help  themselves." 

"  Diligence  is  the  mother  of  good  luck." 

"  One  to-day  is  worth  two  to-morrows." 

"  The  cat  in  gloves  catches  no  mice." 

REFERENCES 

Same  as  for  last  preceding  chapter.  The  biographies  of  any  of  the 
leading  men  of  the  period,  Lossing's  "  Pictorial  Field-Book  of  the  Revo 
lution,11  and  Sims's  "Rearguard  of  the  Revolution"  are  also  recom 
mended. 


CHAPTER   XI 
THE  CONSTITUTION  AND  SELF-GOVERNMENT 

THE  American  people  rejoiced  exceedingly  that  the  long 
war  had  closed  and  that  they  were  free  from  British  con 
trol,  but  the  great  problem  of  self-government  was  yet 
unsolved.  The  people  had  learned  how  to  govern  their 
respective  states,  but  to  join  them  together  into  a  nation 
was  a  new  and  difficult  business  with  which  they  were  not 
familiar. 

THE  TEMPORARY  GOVERNMENT 

While  the  war  was  in  progress,  an  honest  effort  was  made 
to  form  a  permanent  Union,  which  proved,  however,  to  be 
but  temporary.  Congress  framed  and  the  states  adopted, 
in  1781,  a  Constitution  which  was  called 

The  Articles  of  Confederation.  —  This  Constitution  con 
tained  some  good  features.  It  gave  to  Congress  the  power 
to  declare  war  or  to  make  peace,  the  power  of  dealing  with 
foreign  nations,  of  regulating  the  coinage  and  the  postal 
service,  of  building  a  navy,  of  raising  an  army,  and  the  like. 
But  on  the  whole  this  Constitution  was  very  weak.  It  was 
often  called  a  "  rope  of  sand."  For  various  reasons  the  peo 
ple  did  not  wish  to  give  much  power  to  a  central  govern 
ment.  They  feared  that  it  would  become  tyrannical,  as 
England  had  been  before  the  war,  and  besides,  there  was  a 
strong  state  pride  and  the  states  were  unwilling  to  yield 
much  of  their  power  to  Congress.  The  Articles  were  very 

204 


DEFECTS    IN   THE   ARTICLES   OF   CONFEDERATION     205 

defective  and  our  first  attempt  at  self-government  ended 
almost  in  failure. 

Defects  in  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  —  Some  of  the 
most  serious  defects  in  the  Articles  were:  i.  There  was 
no  president  to  execute  the  laws  and  no  supreme  court  to 
interpret  them.  2.  Congress  had  no  power  over  commerce. 
3.  The  general  government  had  no  relations  with  the  citi 
zen,  but  only  with  the  state ;  and  4,  the  most  serious 
defect  of  all,  Congress  had  not  the  power  of  taxation. 
It  could  only  ask  the  states  each  to  provide  so  much  money, 
and  if  they  refused,  there  was  no  power  to  force  them.  In 
1783  Congress  asked  for  a  certain  sum  of  money,  and 
when  a'  year  and  a  half  had  passed,  but  one  fifth  of  the  sum 
had  been  raised. 

The  Land  Cessions.  —  Two  commendable  things  were 
done  at  this  period.  At  the  close  of  the  war  seven  of  the 
states  claimed  western  lands  extending  to  the  Mississippi 
River.  Most  of  these  claims  were  based  on  the  royal 
charters,  and  they  often  conflicted.  Here  were  the  seeds 
of  serious  trouble  for  the  future.  But  at  length  the  danger 
was  averted  when  these  states  ceded  their  western  lands  to 
the  general  government. 

The  Ordinance  of  1787,  adopted  by  Congress,  after  the 
land  cessions  had  been  made,  was  a  plan  of  government 
for  the  territory  northwest  of  the  Ohio  River.  It  ex 
cluded  slavery  forever  from  this  territory,  and  contained 
some  other  wise  provisions. 

Drifting  toward  Anarchy.  —  While  the  Articles  were  in 
force,  the  states  sometimes  quarreled  with  one  another,  and 
Congress  had  no  power  to  prevent  their  doing  so.  They 
violated  the  Articles  ;  they  refused  to  agree  to  laying  a 
tariff  for  the  purpose  of  raising  money  to  pay  the  old 
soldiers  ;  they  refused  to  permit  foreign  treaties  of  commerce 


206      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

to  be  enforced ;  they  issued  floods  of  paper  money,  which 
soon  became  almost  worthless.  Riots  occurred  in  many 
places.  In  Massachusetts  Daniel  Shays  led  two  thousand 
men  against  the  authorities  and  had  to  be  suppressd  by  force 
of  arms. 

The  wiser  men  of  the  country  saw  that  something  must 
be  done,  that  a  stronger  and  safer  government  must  be 
secured,  or  anarchy  would  prevail  and  all  hard-won  fruits 
of  the  Revolution  would  be  lost.  While  the  country  was 
in  this  unsettled  condition,  a  national  convention  was  called 
to  meet  at  Philadelphia  for  the  purpose  of  doing  something 
toward  bringing  about  better  government.  This  tempo 
rary  government  was  very  useful  in  teaching  the  people 
that  a  stronger  union  was  necessary. 

^ 

THE  CONSTITUTION 

The  convention  that  framed  the  Constitution,  which  is 
still  the  supreme  law  of  our  land,  met  in  Philadelphia 
in  May,  1787,  in  the  same  hall  from  which  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  had  been  issued  eleven  years  before. 
There  were  fifty-five  delegates,  coming  from  all  the  thirteen 
states  except  Rhode  Island.  Among  the  leaders  were 
Benjamin  Franklin  and  George  Washington,  James  Madi 
son  and  Alexander  Hamilton.  Washington  was  chosen 
chairman  and  the  sessions  began  for  the  summer.  It  took 
four  months  to  do  the  work,  and  in  September  the  conven 
tion  produced  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  exactly 
as  it  is  now,  except  that  fifteen  amendments  have  since  been 
added. 

Work  of  the  Convention.  —  The  delegates  did  not  know 
what  they  would  do  when  they  met,  and  the  people  did 
not  know  what  they  wanted.  They  knew  that  a  better 


THE   NEW   PLAN  2O? 

government  was  needed,  but  how  it  could  be  brought  about 
was  the  unsolved  problem.  Some  of  the  delegates  wished 
to  temporize,  to  produce  something  that  would  please  every 
body.  Others  favored  doing  thorough  work.  Among  these 
was  Washington,  who  said  in  a  brief  speech,  "  If,  to  please 
the  people,  we  offer  what  we  ourselves  disapprove,  how 
can  we  afterward  defend  our  work  ?  Let  us  raise  a  stand 
ard  to  which  the  wise  and  honest  can  repair ;  the  event 
is  in  the  hand  of  God." 

The  New  Plan.  —  It  was  soon  decided  that  no  attempt 
be  made  to  amend  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  but  that 
a  new  Constitution  be  framed.  A  plan  was  brought  forth 
by  the  delegates  from  Virginia  providing  for  a  government 
with  three  great  departments,  or  coordinate  branches :  a 
legislative  branch,  that  is,  a  Congress  to  make  the  laws ; 
an  executive  branch,  a  President  to  enforce  the  laws ;  and 
a  judicial  branch,  a  Supreme  Court  to  interpret  them. 
This  plan  was  debated  through  the  summer,  was  modified 
and  changed  in  many  particulars,  until  it  became  our  Con 
stitution. 

The  First  Compromise.  —  An  important  dispute  arose  in 
the  beginning  between  the  large  and  small  states.  The 
delegates  from  the  large  states  contended  that  in  the  two 
houses  of  Congress  the  representation  should  be*based  on 
population,  while  the  small  states  wanted  as  much  power 
in  Congress  as  the  large  states.  The  dispute  involved  a 
4eep  principle.  The  large-state  delegates  wanted  a  gov 
ernment  to  represent  the  people  with  no  reference  to  state 
boundaries ;  the  other  party  wanted  a  confederation  of 
sovereign  states,  similar  to  that  under  the  Articles  of  Con 
federation. 

In  this  contest  the  large-state  party  won  a  complete 
victory  with  regard  to  the  President  and  the  Supreme 


208     SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Court  (who  represent  the  whole  people  and  not  any  state); 
but  with  regard  to  Congress  they  won  but  half  a  victory. 
They  yielded  to  a  compromise  by  which  the  Upper  House 
or  Senate  should  represent  the  states,  each  sending  two 
members,  while  in  the  Lower  House  the  membership 
should  be  based  on  population. 

In  the  Senate,  therefore,  each  state  has  two  members ; 
in  the   House  New  York  has,  at  this  time  (1906),  thirty- 


FIRST  FIRE  ENGINE  USED  IN  BROOKLYN,  1785 


seven  members,  and  Delaware,  Nevada,  and  other  states 
with  small  population  have  but  one  each. 

Other  Compromises.  —  The  delegates  came  from  widely 
separated  sections,  as  New  England  and  the  South,  with 
different  interests  and  systems  of  labor,  and  on  many 


A   VIEW    OF   THE   CONSTITUTION  209 

points  they  could  not  agree ;  but  instead  of  breaking  up 
and  doing  nothing  they  agreed  to  compromise. 

A  question  arose  concerning  counting  the  slaves  in  tak 
ing  the  census  for  representatives  in  Congress.  The 
North,  which  had  few  slaves,  wanted  the  slaves  left  out 
of  the  count ;  the  South  wanted  them  included  so  as  to  in 
crease  its  representation.  They  compromised  by  deciding 
to  count  three  fifths  of  the  slaves.  Later  it  was  decided 
that  in  laying  direct  taxes  the  same  plan  should  be  fol 
lowed. 

Another  compromise  came  about  in  this  way.  The 
North  favored  giving  Congress  full  power  over  foreign 
and  interstate  commerce ;  the  South  would  have  each 
state  control  its  own  commerce  as  before.  Before  this  was 
settled  another  question  arose  —  concerning  the  African 
slave  trade.  The  North  wanted  to  shut  it  off,  while  the 
South  would  keep  it  open. 

The  two  questions  were  then  compromised.  The  South 
agreed  to  give  Congress  power  over  commerce,  and  the 
North  agreed  to  prevent  Congress  from  prohibiting  the 
slave  trade  before  the  year  1808. 

There  were  also  many  other  questions  to  be  settled,  such 
as  how  to  elect  a  President,  what  should  be  his  powers, 
and  how  long  should  be  his  term  of  office ;  what  should  be 
the  powers  of  Congress,  and  how  should  the  members  of 
the  Supreme  Court  be  appointed.  These  and  many  other 
things  were  debated  and  decided  as  we  have  them  in  the 
Constitution.  When  the  document  was  completed  (Sep 
tember  17),  all  but  sixteen  of  the  members  signed  it,  thirteen 
having  gone  to  their  homes. 

A  View  of  the  Constitution.  —  Our  Constitution,  though 
not  perfect,  is  the  most  important  document  of  its  kind 
in  the  world.  Not  much  of  it  was  new.  The  makers 


210      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

borrowed  from  many  sources,  especially  from  the  state 
governments.  The  President  and  a  Congress  with  two 
chambers  resemble  the  colonial  governments  with  a  gov 
ernor  and  a  legislature  of  two  chambers,  or,  to  some  extent, 
resemble  the  British  government  with  a  king  and  two 
houses  of  Parliament. 

The  Constitution  created  a  far  stronger  government  than 
the  one  it  was  to  replace.  It  gave  to  the  national  govern 
ment  the  power  to  coin  money,  to  regulate  commerce,  to 
fix  weights  and  measures,  to  tax  the  people,  to  make  war, 
and  arrange  treaties  with  foreign  nations.  But  with  all 
this  it  left  a  great  deal  of  power  to  the  states,  and  a 
large  majority  of  the  laws  under  which  we  live  are  state 
laws. 

The  Constitution  before  the  People.  —  After  the  conven 
tion  had  decided  that  if  nine  states  adopted  the  Constitution, 
it  should  go  into  operation,  it  was  sent  to  Congress,  then 
sitting  in  New  York.  Congress  sent  it  forth  to  the  different 
states  to  be  acted  on. 

Now  there  were  yet  dangerous  breakers  ahead  for  the 
ship  Constitution.  A  great  many  of  the  people  feared 
that  the  government  would  be  too  strong  and  that  Congress 
would  become-  tyrannical.  Among  the  opponents  were 
Patrick  Henry  and  Richard  Henry  Lee.  The  people  who 
favored  the  new  plan  of  government  called  themselves 
Federalists,  and  the  Federalist  party  became  the  first 
great  political  party  in  America.  The  opponents  of  the 
Constitution  were  called  Anti-federalists. 

The  first  state  to  ratify  the  Constitution  was  Delaware 
(December  7,  1787)  and  the  second  was  Pennsylvania.  So 
strong  was  the  opposition  that  in  some  states  the  Federal 
ists  found  it  very  hard  to  secure  a  majority.  At  length 
Massachusetts  and  then  Virginia  gave  their  approval  and 


THE   CONSTITUTION   BEFORE   THE   PEOPLE        211 

the  new  plan  was  secure.  Nearly  a  year  had  passed  after 
finishing  the  Constitution  before  the  necessary  nine  states 
had  adopted  it.  Two  states  hesitated  still  longer.  North 
Carolina  did  not  join  the  Union  till  November,  1789,  and 
Rhode  Island  joined  in  May,  i/QO.1 

The  making  and  adopting  of  the  Constitution  was  a  great 
achievement.  Never  before  in  human  history  had  a  people 
brought  about  so  great  a  political  revolution  without  blood 
shed.  Never  had  a  people  struck  so  fine  a  balance  between 
national  strength  and  local  self-government.2  To  realize 
the  incalculable  advantage  of  our  Union  one  has  only  to 
compare  the  marvelous  harmony  of  our  states  in  their  re 
lations  to  one  another  with  the  incessant  strife,  rebellion, 
and  revolution  among  the  states  of  South  America,  where 
no  union  was  formed. 

SUMMARY 

Under  the  Articles  of  Confederation  there  was  no  executive  or  judi 
ciary.  Congress  had  no  direct  relations  with  the  people,  no  power 
over  commerce  or  taxation,  nor  could  it  enforce  its  own  laws.  Ex 
cessive  state  pride  and  a  fear  of  national  oppression  prevented  a  strong 
government  from  being  established. 

The  states  owning  western  lands  ceded  them  to  the  general  govern 
ment,  and  thus  laid  the  first  solid  basis  of  a  national  government. 

A  constitutional  convention  was  called  to  amend  the  Articles,  and 
it  chose  to  frame  a  New  Constitution,  which  was  completed  and  sent  to 
Congress  in  September,  1787.  It  was  gradually  adopted  by  the  states 
and  became  the  supreme  law  of  the  land. 

The  Constitution  created  three  coordinate  departments  —  a  legis 
lative,  executive,  and  judicial.  It  gives  much  power  to  the  general 
government,  but  much  power  is  also  reserved  to  the  states,  or  the 
people. 

1  For  the  exact  date  of  the  admission   of  all  the  states  see  Appendix  II. 

2  Mr.  Gladstone,  the  great  English  statesman,  pronounced  our  Constitution 
the  "  greatest  work  ever  struck  off  at  any  one  time  by  the  mind  and  purpose 
of  man." 


CHAPTER    XII 
TWELVE    YEARS   OF    FEDERAL   SUPREMACY 

A  VIEW   OF   THE  PEOPLE 

BEFORE  proceeding  to  the  organization  of  the  government 
let  us  take  a  glance  at  the  people  as  we  find  them  in  the 
closing  years  of  the  century.  Much  that  we  have  said  of 
the  life  and  habits  of  the  people  in  1760  in  the  chapter  on 
"  Colonial  Life  "  will  apply  to  the  same  people  forty  years 
later.  But  in  some  respects  important  changes  were  tak 
ing  place. 

Population  and  its  Distribution.  —  The  Constitution  re 
quires  that  a  census  be  taken  every  ten  years.  The  first 
census,  taken  in  1790,  showed  a  population  of  3,929,214, 
or  in  round  figures  four  millions.1  Of  this  number  700,000 
were  slaves,  60,000  free  negroes,  and  about  80,000  Indians. 
The  largest  city  was  Philadelphia  with  42,000,  New  York 
coming  second  with  about  33,000.  The  people  of  the 
South  had  begun  to  cross  the  Appalachian  Mountains  in 
considerable  numbers.  Kentucky  was  admitted  to  the 
Union  as  the  fifteenth  state  in  1792  (Vermont  having  be 
come  the  fourteenth  the  year  before),  and  Tennessee 
became  the  sixteenth  in  1796.  But  with  all  this  the  great 
mass  of  the  people  still  clung  to  the  seaboard,  not  more 
than  one  twentieth  having  crossed  the  mountains. 

1  For  the  population  at  each  census  see  Chronology  beginning  on  p.  xxi. 

212 


OCCUPATIONS 


213 


Occupations.  —  America  at  this  time  was  still  a  nation  of 
farmers,  and  the  crops  raised  were  the  same  as  mentioned 
before  —  grain  and  vegetables  in  the  northern  and  middle 
states,  tobacco  in  Virginia  and  Maryland,  while  the  chief 
staple  farther  south  was  rice.  Cotton  was  not  raised  in 
great  quantities  because  of  the  difficulty  of  separating  the 
seed  from  the  fiber ;  but  in  1 794  Eli  Whitney,  a  northern 
school  teacher  living  in  Georgia,  invented  the  cotton  gin  by 
which  one  man  could  do  the  work  of  many.  After  this 
cotton  was  grown  in  ever 
increasing  quantities,  until 
it  became  the  great  staple 
of  the  South. 

There  were  few  manufac 
tures  except  shipbuilding. 
Foreign  commerce  resumed 
its  importance  soon  after 
the  war,  and  to  the  trade 
with  Europe  was  added  a 
flourishing  trade  with  China 
and  the  East  Indies.  Steam 
navigation  was  unknown 

and  steam  power  in  moving  machinery  had  not  come  into 
use.  All  machines  were  operated  by  human  muscle ;  a 
farmer  cut  his  hay  with  the  hand  scythe  and  his  wheat  with 
the  cradle  or  the  sickle.  A  few  inventions,  however,  such 
as  the  "spinning  jenny"  had  come  into  use,  and  their  im 
portance  stimulated  inventors  to  greater  achievements. 

In  the  matter  of  travel  and  transportation  little  progress 
had  been  made  since  1 760.  Wagon  roads  were  gradually 
improved.  The  first  turnpike,  that  is,  a  road  with  a  bed 
made  solid  and  smooth  with  layers  of  stone,  was  con 
structed  from  Philadelphia  to  Lancaster  in  1792.  The 


THE  FIRST  COTTON  GIN 


214      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

people  were  seized  with  a  canal  fever  about  this  time,  but 
the  era  of  canals  and  turnpikes  properly  belongs  to  the 
next  generation  and  will  be  noticed  later. 

Negro  Slavery.  —  Up  to  the  opening  of  the  Revolution  all 
the  colonies  had  slaves,  though  there  were  few  in  the  North 
compared  with  those  held  in  the  South.  For  a  hundred 
years  before  this  there  was  some  agitation  against  slavery. 
The  agitators  declared  that  the  principles  of  Christianity 
and  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  that  all  men  are 
endowed  with  the  right  to  "  life,  liberty  and  the  pursuit 
of  happiness,"  are  out  of  harmony  with  the  practice  of 
holding  men  in  lifelong  bondage  on  account  of  the  color 
of  their  skin  and  the  accident  of  their  birth. 

At  this  period  a  new  and  more  humane  spirit  was  taking 
hold  of  men's  minds.  It  softened  the  criminal  laws,  modi 
fied  the  hitherto  harsh  treatment  of  the  insane,  and,  a  gen 
eration  later,  it  released  the  prisoners  for  debt.  It  was 
this  new  spirit  that  caused  a  further  agitation  against 
slavery,  and  at  length  brought  about  its  abolishment 
in  the  northern  states,  where  it  had  not  taken  a  deep 
hold  on  the  life  of  the  people.  Pennsylvania  abolished 
slavery  in  1780;  Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire 
about  the  same  time  did  the  same  through  decisions  of 
the  courts.  The  other  northern  states  followed  the  example, 
some  by  gradual  abolition,  until  no  slaves  could  be  found 
north  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  WASHINGTON,  1789-1797 

When  the  time  came  for  choosing  a  President,  the 
eyes  of  all  turned  to  Washington,  the  noble  commander 
who  had  led  the  patriot  armies  to  victory.  The  Constitu 
tion  provided  that  the  President  and  Vice  President  be 
chosen  by  an  electoral  college,  composed  of  as  many  men 


ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   GOVERNMENT  21$ 

from  each  state  as  the  state  had  senators  and  representa 
tives  in  Congress.     The  first  electoral  college  voted  unani- 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON 


mously  for  George  Washington  for  President  and  elected 
John  Adams  Vice  President.1  It  was  decided  that  New 
York  City  be  made  the  first  temporary  capital  and  that 

1  See  Table  of  Presidents,  in  Appendix,  p.  471. 


2l6      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

the  new  Constitution  go  into  operation  on  the  first  Wednes 
day  in  March  (which  happened  to  be  the  4th),   1789. 

Organization  of  the  Government.  —  The  4th  of  March 
came  and  the  new  government  was  ushered  in  with  the 
boom  of  cannon,  the  ringing  of  bells,  and  the  shouts  of 
the  people.  But  the  President  was  not  inaugurated  on 
that  day ;  he  must  first  be  notified  of  his  election  by 
Congress.  Nor  did  Congress  meet  on  the  4th ;  a  quorum 


FEDERAL  HALL,  NEW  YORK,  1789 
Where  Washington  was  inaugurated 

had  not  yet  reached  New  York.  Slowly  the  members 
arrived  ;  on  April  I  the  House  was  organized  and  the 
Senate  on  the  6th.  Frederick  Muhlenberg  of  Pennsyl 
vania  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House.  The  two  houses 
adopted  rules  for  their  own  convenience,  counted  the  elec 
toral  vote,  and  notified  Washington  and  Adams  of  their 
election. 

Inauguration  of  Washington.  —  On    receiving  the  noti- 


FIRST   ACTS   OF   THE    FIRST   CONGRESS  2I/ 

fication  Washington  left  his  Mount  Vernon  home,  made  a 
hurried  visit  to  his  aged  mother  at  Alexandria,  and  pro 
ceeded  to  New  York.  Arriving  there  on  April  23, 1  he 
was  received  with  a  most  enthusiastic  welcome.  The 
inauguration  took  place  on  April  3OJ  at  Federal  Hall, 
Broad  and  Wall  streets.  At  noon  Washington  stepped 
out  on  the  balcony  in  the  presence  of  a  vast  multitude 
and  took  the  oath  of  office.  The  ceremony  over,  the 
voice  of  the  multitude  rose  in  cheer  after  cheer,  the  artil 
lery  roared  from  the  battery,  and  bells  were  rung  all  over 
the  city.  Washington  then  read  his  inaugural  address  to 
Congress  within  the  Senate  chamber,  after  which  the 
whole  body  proceeded  to  St.  Paul's  chapel  on  Broadway 
for  a  religious  service. 

First  Acts  of  the  First  Congress.  —  No  Congress  in 
our  history  has  had  greater  responsibilities  than  the 
First  Congress.  Many  of  its  acts  were  of  permanent 
importance  and  are  still  in  force. 

One  of  the  first  acts  was  to  pass  a  tariff  measure 
which,  signed  by  the  President  on  the  4th  of  July,  is 
known  as  the  Tariff  of  1789.  In  a  short  time  this  tariff 
was  yielding  $200,000  a  month,  quite  enough  for  the  regu 
lar  expenses  of  the  government. 

The  second  important  act  was  the  creation  of  the 
Cabinet.  Three  departments  were  created  at  the  first 
session.  The  head  of  the  department  of  foreign  affairs 
was  called  Secretary  of  State,  and  Washington  chose 
Thomas  Jefferson  to  fill  the  office.  The  second  was  the 
finance  department,  and  Alexander  Hamilton  was  chosen 
as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  Third,  General  Henry 
Knox  became  the  first  Secretary  of  War.  Some  time  later 
a  fourth  department,  that  of  Attorney-general,  was  created 

1  Adams  had  arrived  earlier  and  had  been  sworn  into  office  on  the  8th. 


218      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

and  the  first  appointment  to  it  was  Edmund  Randolph. 
The  Postmaster-general  did  not  become  a  member  of  the 
Cabinet  for  forty  years  after  this,  though  his  office  dated 
back  to  colonial  times. l 

The  next  great  act  was  the  creating  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
and  also  of  Circuit  and  District  courts.  The  first  Supreme 
Court  was  composed  of  a  Chief  Justice  and  five  associates, 
the  first  Chief  Justice  being  John  Jay  of  New  York. 

The  Cabinet,  as  we  now  have  it,  is  not  provided  for 
in  the  Constitution ;  the  members  are  simply  heads  of 
departments,  who  by  custom  have  become  advisers  of  the 
President.  The  Supreme  Court,  however,  was  specially 
provided  for  as  one  of  the  three  coordinate  branches  of  the 
government.  Only  the  details  of  its  organization  were  left 
to  Congress. 

Hamilton's  Treasury  Report,  made  to  Congress,  showed 
a  public  debt  of  about  $54,000,000,  nearly  a  fourth  of 
which  was  owed  to  foreign  creditors,  the  rest  being  owed 
to  American  citizens  who  had  loaned  their  money  to  the 
government  during  the  war.  The  states  had  also  sent 
troops  against  the  British,  each  at  its  own  expense,  and  the 
state  debts  from  this  cause  were  now  about  $21,000,000. 

Hamilton  proposed  that  the  state  debts  be  added  to 
the  national  debt  and  that  the  states  be  thus  relieved  from 
paying  them.  This  was  known  as  "  Assumption  "  ;  that  is, 
an  assuming  of  the  state  debts.  This  would  strengthen 
the  national  government  and  lessen  the  importance  of  the 
states  —  just  what  Hamilton  wanted.2  It  awakened  much 

1  The  Cabinet  has  grown  with  the   business  of  the  country  and  now  is 
composed  of  nine  members.     The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  was  added  in  1798  ; 
the  Postmaster-general  in  1829  ;   Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  1849  ;   of  Agricul 
ture  in  1889,  and  of  Commerce  and  Labor  in  1903. 

2  To  make  this  plainer  :   Suppose  a  number  of  brothers,  each  in  business 
for  himself,  each  owed  you  a  sum  of  money.     You  would  be  anxious  that 


LOCATING   THE   CAPITAL  219 

opposition  from  the  state  rights  party,  led  by  Thomas 
Jefferson. 

Locating  the  Capital.  —  Before  this  question  was  set 
tled  another  arose  —  where  should  the  capital  be  placed  ? 
The  southern  people,  including  Jefferson,  preferred  to 
have  it  on  the  banks  of  the  Potomac ;  the  northern  people 
would  have  it  in  the  North.  Hamilton  and  Jefferson  each 
had  a  following  in  Congress  large  enough  to  prevent  the 
other  from  passing  his  measure,  but  not  large  enough  to 
secure  the  passage  of  his  own.  The  two  men  therefore 
made  a  bargain  by  which  Jefferson  favored  Hamilton's 
measure,  Assumption,  and  Hamilton  favored  Jefferson's 
measure  —  placing  the  capital  on  the  Potomac  —  and 
both  measures  were  soon  afterward  passed  in  Congress. 

A  long  contest  was  thus  begun  between  those  who 
favored  a  very  strong  central  government,  led  by 
Hamilton,  and  those  who  leaned  to  state  rights,  led  by 
Jefferson.  The  Jefferson  followers  were  called  the  Strict 
Construction  party  because  they  wanted  the  powers  of 
Congress  to  be  confined  to  the  strict  letter  of  the  Consti 
tution.  The  Hamilton  party  were  called  Loose  Construc- 
tionists  because  they  favored  construing  the  Constitution 
loosely  and  giving  Congress  enlarged  powers. 

After  securing  assumption  Hamilton  succeeded  in  gain 
ing  two  or  three  other  important  measures  in  accord 
ance  with  his  loose  construction  views — i.  The  funding 

they  succeed  because  your  money  was  invested.  But  suppose  their  father 
assumed  these  debts  and  made  himself  responsible  for  their  payment.  Your 
interest  would  at  once  be  transferred  to  the  business  of  the  father.  Again, 
suppose  a  business  man  finds  it  difficult  to  pay  his  debts  and  a  rich  friend 
does  it  for  him;  he  is  relieved  of  his  debts,  but  he  loses  his  independence. 
Thus  the  states  would  lose  a  portion  of  their  importance  if  assumption  were 
carried.  One  of  the  sources  of  strength  in  a  government  is  a  moderate 
national  debt, 


220      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

of  the  debt,  that  is,  changing  it  to  interest-bearing  bonds ; 
2.  An  excise,1  or  an  internal  revenue  tax  on  distilled  spirits ; 
and  3.  The  establishing  of  a  United  States  Bank.  The 
bank  was  chartered  in  1791  for  twenty  years.  It  was  to 
have  the  government  deposits  and  was  to  loan  the  govern 
ment  money  when  needed. 

The  Whisky  Insurrection.  —  One  of  these  laws,  the  ex 
cise  law,  caused  the  Whisky  Insurrection  of  1794.  The 
people  of  western  Pennsylvania  condensed  their  grain  into 
whisky,  because  it  was  easier  to  get  it  to  market  in  that 
form.  And  they  refused  to  pay  the  revenue  tax  on  it. 
This  was  a  test  of  the  Constitution.  Was  the  government 
strong  enough  to  enforce  its  own  laws  ?  An  army  marched 
across  the  Alleghanies  to  put  down  the  revolt  and  enforce 
the  laws.  No  blood  was  shed  ;  the  people  decided  to  pay 
their  taxes  and  so  the  Constitution  stood  the  test. 

Rise  of  Political  Parties.  —  It  was  this  contest  between 
the  friends  of  a  strong  Union  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
friends  of  state  rights,  or  greater  individual  liberty  on  the 
other,  that  brought  about  the  rise  of  political  parties.  As 
we  have  noticed,  the  people  at  the  time  of  adopting  the 
Constitution  were  called  Federalists  and  Anti-federalists. 
After  it  was  adopted  the  Anti-federalist  party  ceased  to 
exist,  and  the  Federalists  took  control  of  the  government. 
It  was  this  party,  led  by  Hamilton,  that  secured  the  pas 
sage  of  the  laws  we  have  noticed  —  assumption,  funding 
of  the  debt,  excise,  and  the  bank. 

But  Jefferson  feared  that  the  government  would  become 
too  centralized  and  that  the  people,  the  plain  people,  as 
Lincoln  called  them,  would  not  have  the  rights  they 
should  have  in  the  government.  In  the  interests  of  the 
common  people,  therefore,  and  on  the  strict  construction 

1  The  teacher  should  explain  these  terms  to  the  pupils. 


WASHINGTON'S    SECOND    ELECTION  221 

theory,  Jefferson  began  (about  1793)  to  organize  a  new 
party.  He  named  it  Republican ;  but  some  called  it 
Democratic,  and  many  years  later  the  name  Democratic 
came  to  be  used  exclusively.  This  party  grew  very 
rapidly  and  some  years  later  it  gained  control  of  the 
government  and  made  Jefferson  President. 

The  contest  between  these  two  opposing  tendencies, 
which  we  may  call  Liberty  and  Union,  or  Democracy  and 
Nationality,  covered  many  years,  and  indeed  it  has  not 
been  fully  settled  to  this  day ;  but  it  was  hottest  during 
these  first  years.  So  fierce  became  the  strife  between 
Jefferson  and  Hamilton  that  Washington  was  embarrassed 
by  it,  and,  to  relieve  him,  both  men  resigned  from  the 
Cabinet. 

Washington's  Second  Election.  —  Washington  fully  in 
tended  to  retire  from  public  life  at  the  end  of  his  first 
term ;  but  Jefferson  and  Hamilton  both  urged  him  to 
stand  for  a  second  election,  and  he  did  so.  Washington 
held  himself  for  the  most  part  above  party  lines,  and  for 
the  second  time  he  was  elected  by  a  unanimous  vote  of 
the  electoral  college,  John  Adams  being  again  chosen 
Vice  President. 

The  inauguration  took  place  this  time  at  Philadelphia 
(1793).  The  seat  of  government  had  been  at  New  York 
but  one  year  when  it  was  removed  to  Philadelphia  where 
it  remained  for  ten  years. 

Relations  with  France.  —  A  few  years  before  this  time 
(1789)  there  was  a  violent  uprising  in  France  known  as 
the  French  Revolution.  For  centuries  the  French  people 
had  been  oppressed,  and  at  last  they  rose  in  their  anger, 
beheaded  their  king,  and  turned  their  monarchy  into  a 
republic.  In  the  spring  of  1793  the  French  Republic 
sent  its  first  minister  to  America.  His  name  was  Edward 


222      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Charles  Genet,  known  as  "  Citizen  "  Genet ;  for  the  French 
had  abolished  all  more  pretentious  titles. 

Genet  expected  to  secure  the  aid  of  America  in  the 
war  between  France  and  other  European  countries,  and 
began  to  fit  out  privateers  as  if  he  owned  the  whole  coun 
try,  but  he  found  a  serious  obstacle  in  the  attitude  of 
President  Washington. 

Proclamation  of  Neutrality.  —  Washington  saw  that  it 
would  be  very  unwise  for  the  United  States  to  take  part 
in  the  European  wars.  He  determined  to  make  a  stand  for 
neutrality  and  set  an  example  for  the  future.  Advised  by 
his  Cabinet,  he  decided  that  the  treaty  of  alliance  with 
France  of  1778  did  not  mean  that  we  should  take  part  in 
an  aggressive  war,  such  as  France  was  now  waging.  He 
therefore  issued  his  Proclamation  of  Neutrality,  declaring 
that  the  United  States  would  not  take  either  side  in  the  war. 

Genet  was  offended  and  threatened  to  appeal  from 
the  President  to  the  people.  Up  to  this  time  many  of  the 
people  had  sympathized  with  the  French,  and  had  bitterly 
censured  the  President  for  refusing  to  aid  them.  But 
when  the  French  minister  offered  him  this  indignity,  the 
feeling  against  Washington  was  greatly  softened,  the  old 
love  of  the  people  for  the  Father  of  his  Country  again 
rose,  and  Genet  found  that  his  influence  was  at  an  end. 

Trouble  with  England.  —  Our  relations  with  England  at 
this  time  were  no  better  than  with  France.  The  Ameri 
can  people  had  several  grievances  against  England ;  the 
most  serious  were:  I.  The  seizing  of  American  vessels 
trading  with  the  French  West  Indies ;  2.  The  holding  of 
Detroit  and  other  western  posts ;  3.  The  impressment  of 
seamen.  As  to  the  western  posts,  ever  since  the  Revolu 
tion,  the  English  had  refused  to  give  them  up  because, 
as  they  declared,  the  damages  due  to  British  subjects  were 


THE  JAY   TREATY  223 

not  paid  as  agreed  in  the  treaty  of  1783.  In  regard  to  the 
impressment  of  seamen,  English  sailors,  abandoning  their 
country's  navy,  often  obtained  employment  in  American 
vessels,  and  refused  to  return  when  called  to  help  fight 
the  battles  of  their  country.  England  then  adopted  the 
practice  of  seizing  them  from  our  ships  and  forcing  them 
into  the  English  navy.  Often  naturalized  Americans,  and 
sometimes,  by  mistake,  native-born  Americans,  were  taken. 
Against  these  indignities  our  government  protested  in  vain. 

England  at  length  yielded  a  little ;  she  modified  her 
harsh  order  concerning  the  West  India  trade,  and  Wash 
ington  now  felt  that  he  could  make  a  further  move  toward 
bringing  about  better  conditions  without  compromising  our 
national  honor.  He  therefore  decided  to  send  an  envoy 
to  England  to  make  a  treaty  of  commerce,  and  for  the 
difficult  task  he  chose  John  Jay,  chief  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court. 

The  Jay  Treaty.  —  Jay  sailed  in  the  spring  of  1794,  and  a 
year  later  the  treaty  known  by  his  name  was  laid  before  the 
President  and  Senate,  and  was  accepted.  When  the  con 
tents  of  the  treaty  became  known  to  the  people,  the  Repub 
licans  were  fierce  with  anger.  They  denounced  the  treaty 
and  hung  Jay  in  effigy,  declaring  that  he  had  sold  his 
country  for  British  gold.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Jay  had 
been  true  to  his  country  and  that  the  treaty  was  as  favor 
able  as  any  one  could  have  secured.  It  is  true  that  the 
British  refused  to  abandon  the  practice  of  impressing  sea 
men,  and  that  most  of  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  were 
favorable  to  the  British.  But  it  contained  some  good  fea 
tures,  as  the  promise  of  the  British  to  pay  for  seizures  of 
American  vessels,  and  to  give  up  the  western  posts.  It 
was  this  treaty,  no  doubt,  that  prevented  war  between  the 
two  countries  at  that  time. 


224      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

A  treaty  with  Spain  was  made  in  1795  by  which  that 
country  agreed  to  open  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River 
to  American  trade. 

Retirement  of  Washington.  —  Had  Washington  chosen 
to  stand  for  a  third  term  he  could  easily  have  been  elected, 
though  not  unanimously,  perhaps,  as  he  had  twice  been 
chosen.  But  he  refused  to  be  a  candidate.  For  nearly  forty 
years  he  had  been  in  public  life  and  now  he  chose  to  retire 
and  spend  the  evening  of  his  days  on  his  plantation  on  the 
Potomac.  Two  and  a  half  years  later  (in  December,  1799), 
after  a  brief  illness,  he  was  called  to  his  final  rest.1 

Seldom  in  history  has  so  much  depended  on  a  single 
life  as  in  the  case  of  Washington.  Without  him  the  war 
of  the  Revolution  could  hardly  have  succeeded.  When 
the  new  government  was  organized,  the  steadying  qualities, 
the  conservative  strength,  of  this  noble  man  seemed  essen 
tial  to  the  life  of  the  new-born  Republic.  Washington  was 
not  a  great  genius,  but  his  great  wisdom  and  courage,  his 
unerring  judgment,  his  manliness,  his  magnanimity  of  soul, 
rendered  him  exactly  fitted  for  the  position  in  which  Provi 
dence  placed  him.  Never  in  history  has  a  man  more 
truly  deserved  the  title  that  has  been,  by  common  consent, 
conferred  on  him  —  "The  Father  of  his  Country." 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  JOHN  ADAMS,  1797-1801 

John  Adams,  the  Federalist,  was  elected  President  over 
Thomas  Jefferson,  the  Republican,  in  1796,  after  a  bitter 
contest.  As  the  Constitution  then  stood  the  two  receiving 
the  highest  number  of  electoral  votes  should  be  President 
and  Vice  President.  Jefferson,  being  second  in  the  num 
ber  of  votes  received,  became  Vice  President,  though  he 

1  See  note  at  end  of  chapter. 


TROUBLE   WITH    FRANCE 


225 


belonged  to  a  different  political  party.1  Adams  was  able 
and  patriotic  and  thoroughly  trained  in  statesmanship ;  but 
he  was  not  wise  and  tactful.  His  administration  was  con 
cerned  with  two  important  subjects,  which  absorbed  public 
attention  during  the  four  years.  These  were  our  strained 
relations  with 
France  and  the 
passing  of  certain 
unpopular  laws, 
known  as  the  Alien 
and  Sedition  Laws. 
Trouble  with 
France.  —  France 
was  deeply  o  f- 
fended  at  America 
for  concluding  the 
Jay  Treaty  with 
England,  and  when 
Charles  C.  Pinck- 
ney  was  sent  as 
minister  to  France, 
the  French  refused 
to  receive  him. 
It  was  now  Amer 
ica's  turn  to  be 
offended,  and  there 
was  great  indignation  at  the  rejection  of  Pinckney.  Mr. 
Adams,  who  had  been  inaugurated  but  a  few  days 
before  the  news  of  Pinckney's  rejection  reached  America, 
shared  the  resentment  of  the  people.  He  called  an  extra 
session  of  Congress,  and  when  it  met,  he  sent  a  message 

1  This  defect  in  the  Constitution  was  corrected  by  the  twelfth  amendment, 
adopted  in  1804. 
Q 


JOHN  ADAMS 


226      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

that  contained  some  very  pointed  statements  about  the 
insolence  of  the  French. 

The  President  determined,  however,  and  Congress  agreed 
with  him,  that  one  more  effort  for  peace  be  made.  A  mis 
sion  of  three  men,  John  Marshall,  Elbridge  Gerry,  and  C.  C. 
Pinckney  was  sent,  in  the  hope  that  the  differences  might 
be  adjusted. 

The  X.  Y.  Z.  Mission.  —  When  our  three  envoys  reached 
Paris,  they  were  informed  by  agents  of  the  French  Direc 
tory,  or  governing  power,  that  France  would  not  treat  with 
the  United  States  until  three  demands  had  been  complied 
with :  i.  Parts  of  President  Adams's  message,  offensive  to 
France,  must  be  modified ;  2.  A  direct  bribe,  amounting 
to  about  $250,000,  must  be  paid  the  Directory;  3.  The 
United  States  must  loan  France  a  large  sum  of  money  to 
carry  on  her  war  with  England.1 

The  three  Americans  could  do  nothing  but  report  to 
their  government.  This  they  did,  and  when  the  letters  of 
the  Frenchmen  making  these  demands  were  published 
(over  the  signatures  X,  Y,  and  Z),  there  was  a  wild  out 
burst  of  indignation  against  France.  "  War  with  France  " 
was  the  cry  on  every  side. 

Congress  caught  the  war  spirit  of  the  people  and  voted 
to  establish  a  Navy  Department  as  an  addition  to  the  Cabi 
net,  to  establish  harbor  defenses,  to  raise  an  army,  and  to 
purchase  cannon  and  military  stores.  The  French  did  not 
really  want  war  with  America,  and  when  they  discovered 
that  the  Americans  were  ready  to  fight,  they  changed  their 
tone.  The  Directory  meekly  recalled  the  three  offensive 
demands  and  gave  notice  that  if  another  minister  were  sent, 
he  would  be  received. 

1  It  was  at  this  time  that  Pinckney  is  said  to  have  answered,  "Millions  for 
defense,  but  not  a  cent  for  tribute." 


UNPOPULAR   TAX   LAWS  227 

Meantime  war  had  actually  begun  on  the  sea  and  the 
war  spirit  in  America  was  unabated.  General  Washing 
ton  was  appointed  commander  in  chief.  But  suddenly 
President  Adams  made  a  bold  move  by  which  all  danger 
of  war  was  removed  —  he  appointed  another  minister  to 
France.  Adams  did  this  without  consulting  the  other 
leaders  of  his  party,  and  they  were  deeply  offended. 
They  declared  that,  as  France  had  been  the  offending 
party,  she  should  be  the  first  to  appoint  a  minister.  The 
action  of  Adams  split  the  Federalist  party  and  rendered 
his  own  reelection  impossible  ;  but  it  brought  peace  with 
France,  and  that  peace  has  not  been  broken  in  a  hun 
dred  years. 

Unpopular  Tax  Laws.  —  The  Federalist  party  was  weak 
ened,  not  only  by  the  action  of  President  Adams,  but  also 
by  passing  unwise  laws.  The  preparation  for  war  had 
made  further  taxation  necessary,  and  Congress  passed  the 
House  and  Slave  tax  laws,  by  which  owners  of  houses  and 
slaves  had  to  pay  direct  taxes  to  the  government.  These 
were  unpopular  and  drove  many  owners  of  houses  and 
slaves  out  of  the  party.  In  eastern  Pennsylvania  the 
house  tax  caused  an  uprising  among  the  farmers,  led  by 
John  Fries  and  known  as  the  Fries  Rebellion,  which  was 
put  down  by  troops.  Still  more  unpopular  was  a  set  of 
laws  known  as 

The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws.  —  These  were  passed  in 
the  summer  of  1798.  The  Alien  Law  gave  the  President 
power  to  banish  from  the  country  any  alien  whom  he  con 
sidered  a  dangerous  or  suspicious  person.  It  was  aimed 
at  Frenchmen  in  America,  but  was  never  enforced.  The 
Sedition  Law  imposed  a  fine  and  imprisonment  on  any  one 
who  published  false  or  malicious  statements  about  the 
President,  Congress,  or  the  government.  Several  Repub- 


228      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

lican  editors  were  thrown  into  prison  through  the  working 
of  this  law.  The  law  was  bitterly  denounced  as  a  blow  at 
the  right  of  freedom  of  speech  and  the  liberty  of  the 
press.  These  laws  expired  two  years  later. 

The  Kentucky  and  the  Virginia  Resolutions.  —  Soon 
after  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws  were  enacted  they  were 
soundly  denounced  by  the  legislature  of  Kentucky  in  a  set 
of  resolutions,  and  the  year  following  by  the  legislature  of 
Virginia  in  a  similar  way.  These  resolutions  declared  that 
Congress  had  exceeded  its  powers  in  passing  the  Alien 
and  Sedition  Laws  and  that  whenever  Congress  thus  as 
sumed  powers  not  granted  by  the  Constitution,  the  several 
states  had  the  right  to  interpose  or  even  nullify  a  national 
law.  It  was  afterward  found  that  Jefferson  had  written 
the  Kentucky  resolutions  and  Madison  those  of  Virginia. 
The  resolutions  created  a  profound  sensation  throughout 
the  country  and  their  effect  was  felt  for  sixty  years. 

Fall  of  the  Federalist  Party.  —  The  time  had  come  for  a 
new  election.  John  Adams  was  the  Federalist  candidate 
and  Thomas  Jefferson  the  candidate  of  the  Republicans, 
as  four  years  before.  The  campaign  was  the  most  acri 
monious  in  our  history,  the  unpopular  Federalist  laws  be 
ing  the  chief  issue.  The  Republicans  won,  but  when  the 
votes  were  counted,  it  was  found  that  Aaron  Burr,  who  had 
been  placed  on  the  Republican  ticket  for  Vice  President, 
had  received  the  same  number  of  votes  as  Jefferson. 
There  was  no  election,  as  the  Constitution  did  not  author 
ize  the  electors  to  choose  between  the  two.  The  election 
then  went  to  the  House  of  Representatives.  Here  was  a 
dilemma.  The  House  was  controlled  by  the  Federalists, 
who  were  so  chagrined  at  their  defeat  at  the  polls  that 
they  first  thought  of  preventing  an  election  and  of  choos 
ing  a  temporary  President  from  their  own  party.  Had  they 


FOREIGN    RELATIONS  229 

done  this  civil  war  would  no  doubt  have  ensued.  Next 
they  decided  to  elect  Burr  in  order  to  beat  their  opponents 
and  many  of  them  voted  for  Burr.  Hamilton,  the  great 
Federalist  leader,  then  did  a  noble  act.  He  advised  his 
friends  in  the  House  to  vote  for  Jefferson,  or  to  vote  blank 
so  that  the  Republicans  could  elect  him,  as  it  was  danger 
ous  to  make  a  man  President  who  had  not  been  the  choice 
of  any  party.  On  the  thirty-sixth  ballot  Jefferson  was 
elected  and  Burr  became  Vice  President. 


SUMMARY 

The  Population  in  1790  was  nearly  4,000,000,  of  whom  700,000  were 
slaves,  60,000  free  negroes,  and  80,000  Indians.  Nineteen-twentieths 
of  the  people  lived  east  of  the  Appalachians.  Little  progress  had  been 
made  in  the  invention  of  machinery  or  in  the  means  of  traveling. 

A  humane  spirit  brought  about  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  North, 
where  it  had  taken  but  a  mild  hold  on  the  industrial  life  of  the  people. 

Washington,  chosen  first  President,  was  inaugurated  in  New  York, 
April  30,  1789,  the  new  Constitution  having  gone  into  operation  on 
March  4. 

The  First  Congress  enacted  the  Tariff  of  1789,  created  the  Cabinet, 
organized  the  Supreme  Court,  placed  the  capital  on  the  Potomac, 
assumed  the  state  debts,  funded  the  national  debt,  passed  an  excise 
law,  and  chartered  the  United  States  Bank  for  twenty  years. 

The  great  struggle  of  the  period  was  between  the  Federalists,  led  by 
Hamilton,  who  stood  for  a  strong  central  government,  and  the  Repub 
licans,  led  by  Jefferson,  who  emphasized  personal  liberty  and  state 
rights. 

Foreign  Relations.  —  The  attitude  of  the  French  Republic  led  Presi 
dent  Washington  to  issue  a  Proclamation  of  Neutrality  (1794)  by  which 
a  policy  was  adopted  to  which  this  country  has  since  adhered. 

England  meantime  held  our  western  posts,  captured  our  vessels  on 
the  sea,  and  impressed  our  seamen.  At  length  John  Jay  was  sent 
to  London  to  arrange  a  treaty  of  commerce,  which,  being  adopted, 
improved  our  relations  with  that  country.  France,  angered  at  the  Jay 
Treaty,  refused  to  receive  the  American  envoys,  captured  American 


230     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

vessels,  but  receded  from  her  position  when  the  United  States  showed 
a  disposition  to  go  to  war  with  her. 

The  Presidential  election  in  1796  resulted  in  victory  for  the  Federalists, 
John  Adams  being  elected  over  Jefferson.  The  two  important  subjects 
that  absorbed  public  attention  during  Adams's  term  were  the  trouble 


MOUNT  VERNON 

with  France  and  the  passing  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws.  These 
laws  awakened  much  opposition  and  brought  forth  the  Kentucky  and 
Virginia  Resolutions. 

The.  election  in  1800  resulted  in  an  important  political  revolution, 
the  Republicans  defeating  the  Federalists.  The  electoral  college 
failed  to  choose  a  President,  and  the  election  went  to  the  House,  where 
Jefferson  was  elected  over  Aaron  Burr. 


NOTES 

The  Death  of  Washington.  —  On  December  15,  1799,  one  of  Washington's 
attendants,  named  Tobias  Lear,  dispatched  a  letter  from  Mt.  Vernon  to  President 
Adams  at  Philadelphia,  a  part  of  which  is  as  follows :  — 

"  Sir:  It  is  with  inexpressible  grief  that  I  have  to  announce  to  you  the  death  of 


THE   NEW   CAPITAL  231 

the  great  and  good  General  Washington.  He  died  last  evening  between  ten  and 
eleven  o'clock,  after  a  short  illness  of  about  twenty-four  hours.  His  disorder  was 
an  inflamed  throat  from  cold.  His  last  scene  corresponded  with  the  whole  tenor 
of  his  life.  Not  a  groan  nor  a  complaint  escaped  him,  though  in  deep  distress. 
With  perfect  resignation  and  a  full  possession  of  his  reason  he  closed  his  well-spent 
life."  On  the  xath  Washington  went  out  to  ride  about  his  large  farm  and  was 
caught  in  a  storm  of  rain  and  hail,  but  he  continued  his  ride  for  some  hours  and 
took  a  severe  cold  which  soon  developed  into  acute  laryngitis.  The  physicians  bled 
him  twice,  and  they  have  been  severely  criticised  for  this ;  but  letting  blood  for 
almost  every  ill  was  common  in  those  days. 

Washington  was  tall  and  muscular.  He  wore  a  No.  13  boot,  his  hands  were 
large,  his  hair  light  brown,  his  eyes  cold  gray,  and  his  voice  rather  weak.  He 
weighed  two  hundred  pounds,  could  cover  twenty-two  feet  in  a  single  running  jump, 
and  was  an  excellent  shot,  swordsman,  and  rider.  He  was  probably  the  richest  of 
our  Presidents  thus  far.  He  owned  thousands  of  acres  of  land  in  Virginia  and  at 
one  time  twenty  thousand  acres  along  the  Ohio  River.  His  estate  was  valued  at 
about  half  a  million  dollars,  but  it  consisted  of  lands,  herds,  and  slaves,  and  he  was 
at  times  hard  pressed  for  money.  He  had  to  borrow  money  to  take  him  to  New 
York  to  be  inaugurated  President. 

The  New  Capital.  — The  government  began  its  operations  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  in  the  spring  of  1789 ;  but  some  months  later  it  moved  to  Philadelphia,  the 
largest  and  most  important  city  in  the  Union,  and  here  it  remained  for  ten  years. 
In  the  autumn  of  1800,  the  capital  was  removed  to  Washington  City,  and  Jefferson 
was  the"  first  President  to  be  inaugurated  there.  The  District  of  Columbia  lay  on 
both  sides  of  the  Potomac,  and  the  Maryland  side  was  chosen  for  the  seat  of  govern 
ment.  The  farmers  who  owned  the  land  deeded  it  to  the  commissioners  and 
received  in  compensation  half  the  unused  lots,  after  the  streets,  parks,  and  public 
building  grounds  were  reserved.  Major  L'Enfant  planned  and  laid  out  the  city. 
The  corner  stone  of  the  Capitol  was  laid  in  September,  1793.  When  the  government 
removed  thither,  the  city  was  a  wilderness.  There  was  but  one  good  hotel.  The 
President's  house  was  in  an  open  field,  and  this,  with  the  unfinished  Capitol  and  a 
few  scattered  houses  along  the  unpaved  streets,  constituted  the  town.  There  was 
no  business  and  no  society.  The  city  grew  slowly,  and  eight  years  after  Congress 
had  removed  thither,  a  proposition  to  return  to  Philadelphia  was  seriously  con 
sidered.  But  as  the  nation  grew  the  city  improved,  and  to-day  it  is  pronounced  the 
most  beautiful  capital  city  in  the  world. 

REFERENCES 

Hart, «  Formation  of  the  Union  "  ;  Gordy,  "  Political  History,"  Vol.  I ; 
Walker,  "  The  Making  of  the  Nation"  ;  Stanwood,  "  History  of  the 
Presidency  "  ;  Ford,  "  Washington  "  ;  Wilson,  "  Washington  "  ;  Morse, 
"  Jefferson,"  and  the  general  histories  of  McMaster,  Elson,  Higginson, 
Schouler,  and  Henry  Adams. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
JEFFERSON  AND    THE   DEMOCRACY 

IT  was  no  doubt  a  good  thing  for  the  young  Republic 
that  in  the  election  of  1800  the  government  passed  to  the 
control  of  the  common  people.  The  great  majority  of  the 
followers  of  Jefferson  were  of  this  class.  They  needed  to 
be  trained  in  patriotism,  and  nothing  could  do  this  so  well 
as  to  give  them  control  of  the  government. 

The  Federalist  party  had  done  a  noble  work  in  laying 
the  foundations  of  a  strong  central  government ;  but  its 
task  was  done,  and  in  the  following  years  the  party  passed 
away,  never  again  to  regain  its  lost  power. 

Movement  of  Population ;  New  States.  —  During  the 
last  ten  years  of  the  closing  century  the  people  poured 
over  the  Alleghanies  in  ever  increasing  numbers.  Ken 
tucky  had  become  a  state  in  1782  and  Tennessee  in  1796. 

At  the  close  of  the  Revolution  the  great  valley  of  the 
Ohio,  with  its  rolling  hills  and  fertile  plains,  was  a  wilder 
ness  untrodden,  except  by  the  red  children  of  the  forest. 
In  1788  Rufus  Putnam,  the  "  Father  of  Ohio,"  crossed  the 
mountains  with  forty  families,  settled  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Muskingum  and  founded  Marietta.  A  few  years  later, 
the  Indians  of  the  Northwest  being  troublesome,  General 
Arthur  St.  Clair  moved  against  them  with  eighteen  hun 
dred  men  and  suffered  a  terrible  defeat.  The  President 
then  chose  Anthony  Wayne,  the  hero  of  Stony  Point,  to 
march  against  the  Indians.  In  1794  Wayne  defeated  them 

232 


WAR   IN   THE   MEDITERRANEAN  233 

in  the  battle  of  Fallen  Timbers,  near  the  site  of  Maumee 
City.  After  this  the  territory  filled  rapidly  and  in  1803 
Ohio  joined  the  sisterhood  and  became  the  seventeenth 
state. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  JEFFERSON 

Thomas  Jefferson  was  a  son  of  one  of  the  great  land 
holders  of  Virginia,  and  it  was  by  choice  that  he  became 
the  leader  of  the  democracy.  He  had  a  wonderful 
power  in  winning  men  and  he  never  betrayed  their  confi 
dence.  For  secretary  of  state  he  chose  his  most  intimate 
friend,  James  Madison.  Jefferson's  aim  was  to  make  the 
government  as  simple  as  possible  and  to  keep  taxes  low. 
To  do  this  he  abolished  some  offices  and  joined  two  into 
one  where  the  business  would  warrant  it.  He  also  led 
Congress  to  repeal  several  tax  laws  that  had  been  enacted 
by  the  Federalists.  He  reduced  the  size  of  the  regular 
army  and  sold  some  of  the  vessels  of  the  navy. 

War  in  the  Mediterranean.  —  Jefferson  was  so  opposed  to 
war  that  he  would  probably  have  sold  all  the  vessels  in  the 
navy  had  not  a  new  use  for  them  arisen.  The  Barbary  states 
of  North  Africa  had  long  been  in  the  habit  of  exacting 
tribute  from  the  European  countries,  and  they  began  this 
also  with  America.  In  1801,  Tripoli,  to  exact  a  larger  trib 
ute,  declared  war  on  the  United  States.  The  challenge  was 
accepted  and  the  President  sent  a  small  fleet  of  four  ves 
sels  to  the  Mediterranean.  The  Barbary  powers  were 
soon  overawed,  and  they  gave  no  more  trouble  for  some 
years. 

Purchase  of  Louisiana.  —  The  greatest  achievement  in 
the  administration  of  Jefferson  was  the  purchase  of  the 
vast  region  west  of  the  Mississippi,  known  as  Louisiana. 
This  region  had  been  explored  by  La  Salle  in  1682.  It 


234      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

was  then  owned  by  France  till  1762  when  it  was  ceded  to 
Spain.  But  in  1800,  after  Napoleon  Bonaparte  had  risen 
to  power,  the  territory  was  again  ceded  to  France. 

Our  treaty  with  Spain  in  1795  had  opened  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi  to  American  shipping.  This  right  of 
carrying  their  goods  down  the  Mississippi  was  deemed 

necessary  to  the 
Americans  living 
along  the  river,  as 
there  were  no  rail 
roads  across  the 
mountains  to  the 
East.  When  it  was 
learned  that  this 
privilege  was  about 
to  be  discontinued, 
and  that  Napoleon 
had  come  into  pos 
session  of  Louisiana, 
there  was  much  un 
easiness  among  the 
people  of  the  great 
valley. 

President    Jeffer- 

THOMAS  JEFFERSON  son  then  determined 

to  purchase,  if  pos 
sible,  New  Orleans  territory,  which  included  the  mouth 
of  the  river.  He  sent  James  Monroe  to  Paris  to  join 
Robert  R.  Livingston,  our  minister,  who  was  already  there, 
for  the  purpose  of  opening  negotiations.  To  their  astonish 
ment  Napoleon  offered,  through  his  agent,  to  sell  all 
Louisiana.  A  bargain  was  soon  made  and  all  that  vast 
region  was  secured  for  the  sum  of  $15,000,000. 


LEWIS   AND   CLARK   EXPEDITION  235 

The  American  people  were  astonished  at  the  magnitude 
of  the  purchase.  It  more  than  doubled  the  territory  of  the 
United  States  and  has  since  been  carved  into  a  dozen  or 
more  great  and  flourishing  states.  The  purchase  of  Louisi 
ana  is  rightly  pronounced  the  greatest  diplomatic  victory 
in  the  history  of  the  United  States. 

Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition. — While  in  Washington's 
Cabinet,  Jefferson  proposed  an  exploring  expedition  to  the 
Northwest,  and  after  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  he  deter 
mined  to  carry  out  his  project.  Choosing  Merriwether 
Lewis,  one  of  his  secretaries,  and  Captain  Clark,  he  sent  them 
on  their  long  journey.  With  a  company  of  about  forty  men 
they  began  the  ascent  of  the  Missouri  River  in  the  spring 
of  1804.  The  journey  was  full  of  hardships,  but  they 
were  repaid  with  much  romantic  scenery  —  snow-capped 
mountains,  vast  waving  forests,  and  cascades  of  marvelous 
beauty.  After  a  journey  of  a  year  and  a  half,  they  reached 
the  Columbia  River  and  floated  with  its  current  until  they 
came  in  view  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  — that  vast  watery  plain 
on  which  Balboa  had  gazed  with  a  swelling  soul,  through 
which  Magellan  had  plowed  with  his  hardy  seamen  until 
he  had  belted  the  globe.1  Returning  the  next  spring,  they 
reached  St.  Louis  in  September,  1807.  They  had  traveled 
nine  thousand  miles  in  two  and  a  half  years,  and  through 
the  journal  they  kept,  much  was  learned  of  the  great  West. 

In  1806  Zebulon  Pike  made  a  tour  of  the  middle  West  to 
the  site  of  Denver,  and  thence  southward  to  the  head 
waters  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

The  Federal  Courts.  —  After  the  Federalists  had  been 
defeated  at  the  polls  and  before  they  went  out  of  office 
they  created  more  than  twenty  new  judgeships,  and  Presi 
dent  Adams  filled  them  all  with  men  of  his  own  party. 

1  See  Elson's  History,  p.  387. 


236      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES 

This  was  distasteful  to  the  Republicans,  or  Democrats,1 
as  they  were  now  coming  to  be  called,  and  Congress  re 
pealed  the  act,  leaving  the  appointees  without  office. 

The  Democrats  found  fault  also  with  other  of  the  Fed 
eralist  judges.  Judge  Pickering  of  New  Hampshire  was 
removed  from  office  on  a  charge  of  drunkenness,  and  Jus 
tice  Samuel  Chase  of  the  Supreme  Court  was  impeached 
by  the  House,  but  not  convicted  by  the  Senate. 

One-  appointment,  however,  of  President  Adams  no  one 
could  ever  find  fault  with — his  appointment  of  John  Mar 
shall  as  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court.  He  was  the 
ablest  jurist  in  the  history  of  our  country.  For  thirty-five 
years  he  held  this  exalted  position  and  we  are  indebted  to 
him  above  all  men  for  our  present  methods  of  interpreting 
the  Constitution. 

Burr  and  Hamilton.  —  Aaron  Burr  was  Vice  President  of 
the  United  States  and  Alexander  Hamilton  was  the  power 
ful  leader  of  the  Federalist  party.  Both  were  lawyers  of 
New  York  City.  They  were  not  friends  and  at  length  a 
quarrel  arose  between  them,  resulting  in  a  duel  and  the 
death  of  Hamilton. 

The  Democratic  party  had  increased  greatly  since  Jef 
ferson's  election  ;  but  there  were  a  few  Federalists  in  New 
England  who  seemed  to  believe  that  the  country  was  going 
to  destruction  because  they  themselves  were  not  in  power. 
These  men  formed  a  conspiracy  to  break  up  the  Union,  to 
sever  New  England  from  the  other  states  and  form  an 
other  government.  They  wanted  New  York  also  and  to 
secure  it  they  approached  Burr,  a  man  of  selfish  ambition 
and  of  shallow  patriotism.  They  offered  to  support  him 

1  I  shall  henceforth  use  the  term  "  Democratic  "  to  designate  the  party 
founded  by  Jefferson,  though  he  did'  not  give  up  the  term  "  Republican  "  as 
long  as  he  lived. 


BURR'S    CONSPIRACY 


237 


for  governor  of  New  York  if  he  would  aid  them.  He 
agreed,  but  was  defeated  because  of  Hamilton's  influence, 
which  was  thrown  against  him.  This  angered  Burr  and 
he  challenged  Hamilton  to  a  duel  and  killed  him. 

Hamilton  was  one  of  the  greatest  statesmen  in  our  his 
tory,  able,  honest,  patriotic.  When  the  people  knew  of  his 
death,  there  was  an  outburst  of  wrath  against  his  slayer. 
Burr  fled  the  city  to  escape  popular  indignation. 

More  Trouble  with 
England.  —  In  1804 
Thomas  Jefferson  was 
reflected  President  by  a 
great  majority,  the  Fed 
eralist  candidate,  Charles 
C.  Pinckney,  receiving 
but  fourteen  votes. 
George  Clinton  of  New 
York  became  Vice  Presi 
dent.  Jefferson  had  won 
over  many  of  his  former 
opponents  and  greatly 
strengthened  his  party, 
but  the  trying  time  of 
his  life  was  still  before 
him. 

Burr's  Conspiracy.  —  The  next  year  (1805)  Burr  made 
a  tour  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  began  to  build  boats 
and  collect  an  army,  for  the  purpose,  he  said,  of  making 
an  expedition  against  the  Spaniards  in  Mexico.  But  most 
people  believed  that  his  purpose  was  to  sever  the  Union, 
to  set  up  an  independent  nation  in  the  Mississippi  Valley 
with  himself  at  its  head.  In  his  conspiracy  he  had  the 
aid  of  James  Wilkinson,  commander  of  the  army  in  the 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON 


238      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

West,  of  Blennerhassett,  the  proprietor  of  an  island  called 
by  his  name  in  the  Ohio  River  near  Marietta,  and  of 
many  others. 

At  length  the  bubble  burst.  Burr  was  arrested  ;  he  was 
tried  for  treason  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  under  Chief  Jus 
tice  Marshall.  As  treason  could  not  be  proved  against 
him,  he  was  acquitted.  But  the  people  never  forgave  him. 
His  reputation  was  utterly  blasted,  and  many  years  later 

he  sank  into  the  grave 
lonely  and  .despised. 

Fulton  and  the  Steam 
boat.  --  Robert  Fulton 
was  the  inventor  of  the 
first  successful  steam 
boat,  though  he  was  not 
the  originator  of  the  idea 
of  steam  navigation.  In 
1786  James  Rumsey  ex 
perimented  on  the  Poto 
mac  with  a  steamboat, 
and  the  same  year  John 
Fitch,  a  greater  genius 
than  Rumsey  or  Fulton, 
made  similar  experi 
ments  on  the  Delaware. 
But  neither  Rumsey  nor 
Fitch  awakened  the  in 
terest  of  the  great  public,  as  Fulton  succeeded  in  doing 
twenty  years  later. 

Fulton's  first  successful  steamboat  was  the  Clermont, 
which  made  its  trial  trip  on  the  Hudson  in  August,  1807. 
The  boat  was  described  as  a  "monster,  defying  wind  and 
tide,  breathing  flame  and  smoke."  The  boat  ran  from 


WAR  BETWEEN  FRANCE  AND  ENGLAND 


239 


New  York  City  to  Albany  in  thirty-two  hours,  and  from 
this  time  steam  navigation  made  rapid  progress  until  it  revo 
lutionized  the  word  of  trade  and  travel. 

France  and  England  were  again  at  war,  and  France  not 
being  permitted  to  trade  with  her  own  colonies,  again  threw 
the  West  India  trade  open  to  America.  In  a  short  time 
American  merchants  were  enjoying  a  most  flourishing 
trade  with  the  French  West  Indies,  when  Great  Britain 
determined  that  this  traffic  should  be  stopped.  She  seized 
hundreds  of  our  vessels,  and,  in  addition,  revived  the  prac- 


THE   "CLERMONT"   ON  THE   HUDSON 

tice  of   impressing   our  seamen.      This  led  to  a   serious 
encounter  between  two  vessels. 

The  Leopard  and  the  Chesapeake.  —  In  1 807  the  British 
ship,  the  Leopard,  while  searching  for  three  British 
deserters,  fired  on  the  Chesapeake,  off  Hampton  Roads, 
Virginia.  For  some  hours  the  fire  was  kept  up,  three  men 
being  killed  and  several  wounded,  when  the  commander  of 
the  Chesapeake,  not  being  prepared  to  return  the  fire,  raised 
the  white  flag  and  surrendered.  Four  men,  three  of  them 
being  American  citizens,  were  seized  and  impressed  into 


240      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

the  British  service.  This  outrage  raised  the  ire  of  the 
American  people  as  nothing  had  done  for  many  years,  and 
it  came  near  causing  war. 

English  Orders  and  French  Decrees.  —  In  addition  to  the 
impressment  of  seamen  America  was  greatly  annoyed  at 
this  time  by  certain  English  Orders  in  Council,  and  by  de 
crees  issued  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  French  emperor. 

A  tremendous  war  was  raging  between  France  and 
England.  Each  tried  to  draw  the  United  States  into  war 
against  the  other.  Failing  in  this,  they  both  showed  a 
contempt  for  American  rights  and  came  near  driving  our 
commerce  from  the  seas. 

In  November,  1806,  Napoleon  issued  from  Berlin,  Ger 
many,  a  decree,  proclaiming  England  in  a  state  of  blockade 
and  declaring  that  no  ship  which  touched  at  an  English 
port  should  be  admitted  to  a  French  port.  This  decree 
was  answered  by  the  English  Orders  in  Council  in  the  fol 
lowing  January,  closing  to  neutral  ships  all  ports  under 
French  control.1 

A  few  months  later  a  still  more  humiliating  English  order 
declared  that  any  neutral  vessel  trading  at  a  port  from 
which  British  ships  were  excluded  must  first  stop  at  an 
English  port  and  pay  a  duty,  and  this  must  be  repeated  on 
the  return  voyage.  Napoleon  answered  this  by  issuing 
his  Milan  Decree,  namely,  that  any  neutral  vessel,  having 
paid  a  duty  at  an  English  port,  might  be  seized  as  a  prize 
in  any  French  port. 

What  could  the  Americans  do  ?  If  they  ignored  these 
orders  and  decrees,  their  commerce  would  be  swept  from 
the  sea.  There  were  two  ways  left.  i.  To  make  war  on 
both  France  and  England ;  but  this  would  have  been  dan 
gerous  to  the  life  of  the  youthful  Republic.  2.  To  lay  an 

1  "  Neutral "  meant  American,  as  nearly  all  Europe  was  at  war. 


JEFFERSON'S    EMBARGO  241 

embargo  on  American  shipping  and  refuse  to  trade  with 
both  nations.  This  would  ruin  thousands  of  American 
merchants  and  traders  and  throw  great  numbers  of  seamen 
out  of  employment.  Jefferson  loved  peace  far  better  than 
war.  Moreover,  he  believed  that  France  and  England  would 
be  willing  to  grant  our  rights  and  to  treat  us  with  respect 
rather  than  lose  our  trade.  He  therefore  decided  to  try 
the  embargo. 

Jefferson's  Embargo.  —  In  December,  1807,  Congress,  at 
the  request  of  the  President,  passed  an  act  prohibiting  for 
eign  commerce.  At  first  the  people  approved  it,  but  as 
the  months  passed  it  became  a  heavy  burden.  Great 
stacks  of  wheat,  corn,  cotton,  and  tobacco  lay  along  the 
wharfs  of  the  seaports  while  the  ships  lay  rotting  in  the 
harbors.  Jefferson's  great  popularity  began  to  wane. 
The  people,  especially  in  New  England,  denounced  him 
unsparingly. 

The  effect  of  the  embargo  on  France  was  slight.  It 
gave  Napoleon  an  excuse  for  seizing  any  American  vessels 
that  evaded  the  law  and  sailed  to  European  waters.  The 
effect  in  England  was  more  marked,  but  the  result  was  not 
what  Jefferson  had  expected.  The  Embargo  Act  was  re 
pealed  a  few  days  before  Jefferson  went  out  of  office.  On 
the  whole  it  must  be  pronounced  a  failure ;  but  it  did  some 
good  :  it  taught  the  people  not  to  rely  on  such  measures 
in  the  future.  It  also  caused  many  of  the  people  to 
turn  to  manufacturing,  and  from  this  small  beginning  our 
country  has  grown  to  be  one  of  the  great  manufacturing 
nations  of  the  world. 

Retirement  of  Jefferson.  —  The  great  popularity  of  Jef 
ferson  had  waned  on  account  of  the  embargo ;  but  within 
a  few  years  after  he  retired  from  office  it  rose  to  its  nor 
mal  state,  and  to  the  end  of  his  life  he  was  the  adviser  of 


242      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

his  party.  The  fierce  contest  between  him  and  Hamilton 
resulted,  it  may  be  said,  in  a  victory  for  both  ;  that  is,  a  sort 
of  compromise.  In  our  great  government  of  to-day  we 
have  a  strong  national  Union,  such  as  Hamilton  stood  for. 
We  have  also  personal  liberty,  the  rule  of  the  democracy,  , 
as  advocated  by  Jefferson. 


MONTICELLO 

Jefferson,  on  leaving  Washington,  retired  to  his  home  in 
Virginia,  and  never  afterward  left  the  state.1  He  and  John 
Adams  had  been  friendly  rivals.  They  were  estranged  for 
some  years  after  Jefferson's  retirement,  but  again  they 
became  friends,  and  corresponded  with  each  other  to  the 
end  of  their  lives,  both  dying  on  the  same  day,  —  the 
national  holiday,  1826,  precisely  fifty  years  after  the  passing 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

1  His  mansion,  named  Monticello,  is  near  Charlottesville. 


THE  FEDERALIST   PARTY  243 

SUMMARY 

The  Federalist  Party  did  a  noble  work  in  laying  the  foundations 
of  a  strong  central  government.  On  this  foundation  the  Republican 
or  Democratic  party  reared  the  structure  of  democracy  or  local  self- 
government. 

President  Jefferson  cut  down  the  expenses  of  the  government  where- 
ever  possible,  but  he  gradually  adopted  the  best  principles  of  the 
Federalist  party  and  came  to  favor  a  strong  central  government. 

In  1803  he  purchased  Louisiana  for  $15,000,000  of  Napoleon,  who 
had  received  the  territory  from  Spain  in  1800.  This  was  the  greatest 
diplomatic  achievement  in  our  history.  Soon  after  the  purchase  the 
Lewis  and  Clark  exploring  expedition  to  the  Northwest  was  made. 

Burr  and  Hamilton.  —  Vice  President  Aaron  Burr  quarreled  with 
Alexander  Hamilton  and  killed  him  in  a  duel.  Burr  afterward  went 
to  the  Mississippi  Valley,  where  his  movements  indicated  treason.  He 
was  arrested,  tried,  and  acquitted  (1807). 

Robert  Fulton  made  the  first  successful  steamboat  trial  on  the  Hudson 
River  in  1807. 

Trouble  with  England  and  France.  —  A  long  war  between  the  French 
and  English  brought  great  annoyance  to  the  United  States.  The 
English  seized  many  of  our  vessels  that  traded  with  the  French  West 
Indies  and  impressed  seamen  from  American  ships.  English  Orders 
in  Council  were  issued  that  were  very  humiliating  to  the  United  States. 
Napoleon  meantime  issued  his  Berlin  and  Milan  Decrees,  quite  as 
humiliating  as  the  English  Orders.  Jefferson  then  led  Congress  to 
pass  the  Embargo  Act  (December,  1807).  This  was  in  force  about 
fifteen  months,  but  did  not  have  the  desired  effect  on  France  and 
England. 

NOTES 

Theodosia  Burr.  —  There  was  one  pathetic  vein  that  ran  like  a  scarlet  thread 
through  the  strange  career  of  Aaron  Burr  —  his  relations  to  his  daughter.  His 
wife  had  died  young  and  had  left  him  this  beautiful  child,  Theodosia,  who  reigned 
over  his  home  like  a  princess  and  grew  into  a  queenly  woman.  Her  mental 
endowments  were  unusual.  She  believed  her  father  the  most  perfect  of  men,  and 
never  seemed  to  doubt  the  honesty  and  sincerity  of  his  motives.  At  Richmond  she 
followed  the  trial  with  the  keenness  of  a  trained  lawyer,  and  won  the  admiration  of 
every  one  that  came  within  her  influence.  When  all  others  execrated  her  father  as 
a  villain,  she  clung  to  him  with  the  greater  devotion.  While  he  was  in  Europe,  she 
wrote  :  "  I  witness  your  extraordinary  fortitude  with  new  wonder  at  every  new  mis- 


244      SCHOOL   HISTORY  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

fortune.  .  .  .  My  vanity  would  be  greater  if  I  had  not  been  placed  so  near  you 
and  yet  my  pride  is  our  relationship."  On  Burr's  return  to  America,  Theodosia 
left  her  southern  home  to  fly  to  his  arms.  She  was  in  mourning  for  her  only  child, 
a  bright  and  promising  boy,  who  had  recently  died  and,  like  Rachel,  she  refused  to 
be  comforted.  She  embarked  on  the  sea  at  Charleston,  and  her  father  watched 
and  longed  with  painful  anxiety  for  the  coming  of  his  one  remaining  friend,  whose 
faith  in  him  had  never  faltered.  But  he  waited  in  vain.  The  ship  was  lost  upon 
the  ocean,  and  not  a  life  was  saved.  When  Burr  realized  that  his  faithful  daughter 
had  found  a  grave  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  his  own  utter  loneliness,  his  grief 
was  almost  unbearable  ;  yet  he  suppressed  it  with  wonderful  self-control.  He  lived 
beyond  his  fourscore  years,  dying  in  1836,  and  was  buried  with  his  fathers  at 
Princeton,  New  Jersey.  His  father,  the  Rev.  Aaron  Burr,  had  been  president  of 
Princeton  College,  and  his  mother  was  a  daughter  of  the  great  Puritan  divine, 
Jonathan  Edwards. 

Impressment  of  Seamen.  —  The  insolent  methods  often  employed  by  English 
shipmasters  in  searching  American  vessels,  and  their  indiscriminate  recklessness 
which  resulted  in  their  seizing  many  who  were  not  British  subjects,  were  exasperat 
ing  in  the  extreme,  and  cannot  be  condoned.  But  it  is  a  mistake  to  believe  that 
the  British  government  maintained  the  right  of  impressing  seamen  simply  to  annoy 
the  United  States.  This  is  far  from  the  truth.  In  fact,  impressment  was  almost  a 
necessity  to  England  at  this  time.  She  was  engaged  in  a  life-and-death  struggle 
with  Napoleon.  Her  sailors  deserted  in  large  numbers  and  engaged  with  American 
ships  because  of  better  pay  and  easier  service.  At  one  time,  complains  the  English 
minister,  twelve  of  his  Majesty's  ships  lay  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  unable  to  move, 
owing  to  desertions.  Many  English  sailors,  on  reaching  an  American  port,  would 
purchase  forged  papers  of  American  citizenship  for  a  dollar  or  two,  or  secure  them 
by  perjury  before  a  magistrate.  Nevertheless  England  was  much  more  to  blame 
than  America  because  of  her  persistent  refusal  to  agree  to  an  exchange  of  deserters. 

REFERENCES 

The  general  histories  by  Elson,  Higginson,  Bryant  and  Gay, 
Schouler,  McMaster,  Henry  Adams;  Roosevelt,  "Winning  of  the 
West";  Sparks,  "Expansion";  Hosmer,  «  Louisiana  Purchase ";  and 
the  American  Statesman  Series  biographies. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THE  WAR  OF   1812 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  MADISON,   1809-1817 

MANY  of  Jefferson's  friends  urged  him  to  become  a  can 
didate  for  a  third  term,  but  he  refused,  and  his  secretary 
of  state,  James  Madison,  was  elected  to  the  great  office, 
George  Clinton  being  again  elected  Vice  President. 

Madison,  like  Washington  and  Jefferson,  was  a  Virginian. 
He  was  "  a  quiet,  neat  little  man,  full  of  good  humor  and 
anecdote."  He  had  helped  to  frame  the  Constitution,  had 
served  in  Congress  while  Washington  was  President,  and 
was  secretary  of  state  during  the  entire  administration  of 
Jefferson.  He  chose  Albert  Gallatin,  one  of  the  greatest 
financiers  in  our  history,  as  secretary  of  the  treasury ;  in 
1811  James  Monroe  became  secretary  of  state. 

Strained  Relations  with  France  and  England.  —  The 
embargo  of  Jefferson  was  followed  by  an  act  of  non-inter 
course  with  France  and  England.  In  1810,  the  English 
minister  declared  that  his  government  would  repeal  the 
Orders  in  Council,  if  the  non-intercourse  act  with  England 
were  removed.  Madison  removed  it  by  proclamation,  and 
the  people  rejoiced.  But  the  Orders  in  Council  were  not 
repealed,  and  the  minister  who  had  promised  repeal  was 
recalled  as  having  exceeded  his  instructions.  Non-inter 
course  with  Great  Britain  was  then  revived. 

Our  Relations  with  France  were  no  better  than  with  Eng 
land.  In  1810  Congress  removed  the  non-intercourse 

245 


246      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

restriction,  but  declared  that  if  either  country  continued 
hostile  to  our  trade,  intercourse  with  that  country  should 
again  be  shut  off.  The  wily  Napoleon,  having  heard  of 
this  act,  pretended  that  he  would  revoke  his  decrees  against 
American  shipping.  This  was  only  a  trick  by  which  to 
entice  our  vessels  to  French  ports.  Many  American 
ships  were  caught  in  this  trap,  and  were  seized  and  sold  to 

enrich  Napoleon's 
treasury.  So  out 
rageous  was  the 
treatment  of  Amer 
ica  by  both  these 
countries  that,  as  a 
self-respecting  na 
tion,  there  was 
nothing  to  do  but 
take  up  arms  in  de 
fense  of  our  rights. 
Tippecanoe.  - 
While  our  foreign 
relations  were  thus 
strained,  public  at 
tention  was  called 
to  Indian  troubles 

JAMES  MADISON  in    the    Northwest 

For  more  than  ten 

years  after  Wayne  defeated  the  Indians  of  Ohio,  in  1794, 
they  had  given  little  trouble.  But  a  great  leader  had  now 
arisen  among  them  in  the  person  of  Tecumseh,  a  Shawnee 
chief.  William  Henry  Harrison,  a  future  President,  was 
governor  of  Indian  Territory.  In  1809  he  made  a  treaty 
with  the  Indians  by  which  he  secured  three  million  acres  in 
northern  Indiana.  Tecumseh  and  his  brother,  a  medicine 


DRIFTING   TOWARD   WAR 


247 


man  known  as  the  Prophet,  declared  that  the  treaty  was 
void  and  began  to  prepare  to  fight  the  Americans. 

In  the  autumn  of  1811  General  Harrison  met  the  Indians 
near  the  town  of  Tippecanoe  on  the  Wabash  River.  After 
a  fierce  battle  of  two  hours  the  Indians  broke  and  fled,  and 
the  Americans  burned  their  town.  This  battle  was  not  a 
part  of  the  war  with  England  that  was  soon  to  follow. 

Drifting  toward  War. — Two  events  in  1811  pointed 
toward  war.  i.  The  American  minister  at  London  took 
unfriendly  leave,  withdrawing 
from  the  country  because  the 
British  refused  to  repeal  the 
Orders  in  Council.  2.  The 
American  ship,  the  President, 
had  a  duel  at  sea  with  the 
English  Little  Belt,  disabling 
and  capturing  her.  The 
American  people  considered 
this  an  avenging  of  the  out 
rage  on  the  Chesapeake  by  the 
Leopard  four  years  before. 

Still  the  Orders  in  Council 
were  not  repealed  and  the  impressment  business  went 
on.  The  war  spirit  now  rose  rapidly  in  America.  In 
Congress  there  were  strong  young  leaders,  chief  of  whom 
were  Henry  Clay  of  Kentucky,  and  John  C.  Calhoun  of 
South  Carolina,  who  determined  that  no  longer  should 
America  suffer  the  indignities  that  it  had  borne  for 
twenty  years. 

President  Madison  was  devoted  to  peace ;  he  hesitated, 
but  at  length  came  to  favor  a  declaration  of  war.  When 
the  British  saw  that  the  Americans  were  in  earnest,  they 
hastened  to  repeal  the  Orders  in  Council ;  but  it  was  too 


GENERAL  DEARBORN 


248      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

late.     On  June  18,  1812,  war  was  declared  against  Great 
Britain. 

War  in  the  Lake  Region.  —  Many  of  the  old  Federal 
ists,  especially  in  New  England,  were  opposed  to  the  war 
and  so  continued  to  the  end.  But  the  majority  of  the 
people  were  eager  to  defend  the  country's  rights  and 


several  armies  were  soon  organized.     Henry  Dearborn  of 
Massachusetts  was  made  commander  in  chief. 

The  war  opened  in  the  lake  region  and  the  first  event  — 
the  surrender  of  Michigan  without  a  battle  —  has  been 
pronounced  the  most  disgraceful  affair  in  American  history. 
William  Hull  was  governor  of  Michigan  with  headquarters 
at  Detroit.  The  British  in  Canada  were  commanded  by  a 
strong  leader,  General  Isaac  Brock.  When  Brock  led  an 


WAR   ON   THE    SEA  249 

army  against  Detroit  in  August  and  demanded  a  surrender, 
Hull's  courage  forsook  him  ;  he  raised  the  white  flag,  and 
all  Michigan  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 

Brock  hastened  back  to  Niagara  with  his  prisoners,  and 
two  months  later  he  was  stationed  on  Queenstown  Heights, 
on  the  Canadian  side  of  the  river.  Here  he  was  attacked 
by  an  American  army  commanded  by  Stephen  Van  Rensse- 
laer.  The  British  won  a  victory,  driving  the  Americans 


BATTLE  BETWEEN  THE  "GUERRIERE"  AND  THE  "CONSTITUTION" 

to  the  river  brink  and  capturing  several  hundred.  But  it 
was  a  dear  victory,  for  their  brave  commander,  General 
Brock,  had  fallen  dead  with  a  bullet  in  his  breast. 

War  on  the  Sea.  —  Our  victories  on  the  sea  during  this 
fateful  year  of  1812  were  in  striking  contrast  with  the  con 
tinued  failures  in  the  lake  region.  Our  navy  was  a  pygmy 
compared  with  the  powerful  navy  of  England,  and  great 
was  the  astonishment  when  our  ships  won  victory  after 
victory  on  the  sea.  The  most  famous  of  these  naval  duels 


250     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

was  that  between  the  Constitution,  an  American  frigate  of 
forty-four  guns,  and  the  Guerritre,  a  British  frigate  of 
thirty-eight  guns.  The  Constitution  was  commanded  by 
Captain  Isaac  Hull,  a  nephew  of  the  unhappy  governor  of 

Michigan,  and  the 
fight  took  place  but 
three  days  after  the 
surrender  of  Michigan. 
The  English  cap 
tain  had  boasted  that 
he  could  defeat  any 
American  ship  that 
dared  engage  with 
him.  The  two  ships 
met  on  the  Atlantic 
eight  hundred  miles 
east  of  Boston,  and 
there  on  the  rolling 
deep  they  engaged  in 
their  death  duel.  For 

half     an     hour     they 
ISAAC  HULL  • 

poured      forth      their 

deadly  broadsides  when  the  Guerriere,  totally  disabled, 
struck  her  colors  and  surrendered.  Seventy-nine  of  the 
English  and  fourteen  Americans  were  killed.  Captain 
Hull  burned  the  ruined  battleship  and  took  his  prisoners  to 
Boston,  and  the  people  rejoiced  from  one  end  of  the  land 
to  the  other. 

There  were  many  other  American  victories  on  the  sea 
within  the  first  year  of  the  war.  In  October,  1812,  the 
Wasp,  an  American  sloop,  captured  the  Frolic,  after  a 
bloody  battle  five  hundred  miles  off  the  coast  of  North 
Carolina.  Within  the  same  month  the  United  States,  one 


WAR   ON   THE   SEA  251 

of  our  finest  frigates,  captured  the  Macedonian,  and  in 
December  the  Constitution^  now  called  "  Old  Ironsides," 
added  another  to  her  famous  victories.  In  a  desperate 
fight  off  the  coast  of  Brazil  she  destroyed  \hejava,  the 
British  loss  in  killed  and  wounded  being  nine  times  greater 
than  the  American.  These  unexpected  American  victories 
created  a  tremendous  sensation  in  England  and  turned  the 
eyes  of  the  world  to  the  rising  young  Republic. 

The  year  1813,  however,  brought  some  serious  reverses, 
the  most  notable  of  which  was  the  capture  of  the  Chesa 
peake  by  the  Shannon.  The 
brave  young  commander  of  the 
Chesapeake^  Captain  Lawrence, 
received  a  mortal  wound.  While 
being  carried  below  he  cried, 
"  Don't  give  up  the  ship,"  and 
this  became  a  rallying  cry  to  his 
countrymen. 

One  of  the  most  famous  of  the 
sea  fights  was  that  of  the  Essex 
against  two  English  vessels  in 

the  harbor  of  Valparaiso,  South 

JAMES  LAWRENCE 
America.      The    Essex    made    a 

brave  fight,  but  the  odds  were  too  great  and  she  surrendered 
after  three  fourths  of  her  crew  were  killed  or  wounded. 
Among  the  captured  crew  was  a  boy  of  thirteen  years  who, 
in  a  far  greater  war,  was  to  become  the  leading  naval  hero 
-  David  G.  Farragut. 

Not  only  the  vessels  of  the  navy,  but  also  the  privateers 
did  most  effective  work  on  the  sea.  Many  hundred  Eng 
lish  merchant  ships  were  captured  by  these  bold,  insatiable 
rovers  of  the  sea,  the  American  privateers.  The  British 
also  captured  many  American  ships. 


252      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Again  among  the  Lakes.  —  The  second  year  in  the  lake 
region  was  more  favorable  to  the  Americans  than  the  first. 
Their  intention  from  the  beginning  was  to  invade  Canada. 
In  this  they  made  no  progress  the  first  year,  but  in  April, 
1813,  General  Zebulon  Pike,  the  explorer,  captured  Toronto 
(then  called  York).  An  expedition  against  Montreal  was 
then  planned  and  General  James  Wilkinson,  who  had  suc 
ceeded  Dearborn  as  chief  commander,  became  its  leader. 
But  after  suffering  a  defeat  at  Chrystler's  Field,  within  a 
hundred  miles  of  Montreal,  he  returned. 

The  most  famous  victory  in  the  lake  region  was  the 
defeat  of  the  English  fleet  on  Lake  Erie  by  Oliver  Hazard 
Perry.  After  building  a  fleet  of  ten 
vessels  at  Erie,  Perry  crossed  the  bar 
(August,  1813)  and  offered  battle  to 
the  English  fleet,  commanded  by  Com 
modore  Barclay  and  of  about  the  same 
size  as  Perry's  fleet.  Barclay  fled  and 
it  took  Perry  a  month  to  find  him.  He 
did  so  at  Put-in  Bay  on  September  10, 
about  sunrise,  and  before  sunset  the 
British  were  without  ships  or  sailors 
on  Lake  Erie.  The  battle  was  short 

and  furious.     It  resulted  in  the  destruc- 
OLIVER  HAZARD  PERRY 

tion  or  capture  of  every  English  ship. 

"  We  have   met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours,"  was  the 
laconic  dispatch  sent  by   Perry  to  General  Harrison. 

Harrison  in  the  Northwest;  The  Thames.  —  General 
William  Henry  Harrison  had  collected  a  forceful  army  in 
northern  Ohio.  Through  Perry's  victory  Lake  Erie  was 
now  in  the  control  of  the  Americans  and  Harrison  deter 
mined  to  restore  Michigan.  After  fighting  several  battles 
with  a  British  army  in  northern  Ohio  he  moved  toward 


HARRISON    IN    THE    NORTHWEST  253 

Detroit  The  British  fled,  and  Michigan,  which  had  been 
lost  without  a  battle,  was  recovered  without  a  battle.  The 
British  army,  under  General  Proctor  and  the  great  Indian 
chief,  Tecumseh,  continued  to  flee,  with  Harrison  in  hot 
pursuit,  until  they  reached  a  point  on  the  Thames  River, 
where  they  turned  to  give  battle.  The  result  was  a  decisive 
victory  for  the  Americans,  almost  the  entire  British  army 
being  killed,  wounded,  or  captured.  Among  the  slain  was 
the  powerful  Indian  warrior,  Tecumseh. 

The  winter  passed  with  little  activity.  In  July  of  the 
next  year  (1814)  two  heavy  battles  were  fought  near 
Niagara  Falls.  The  first  was  at  Chippewa,  where  General 
Winfield  Scott  defeated  a  British  army  in  one  hour  of  hard 
fighting.  The  second  was  the  night  battle  at  Lundy's 
Lane  within  hearing  of  the  roar  of  Niagara.  General 
Jacob  Brown  was  the  American  commander.  The  battle 
began  about  sunset  on  July  25  and  raged  till  midnight, 
each  army  directing  its  fire  by  the  flash  of  the  enemy's 
guns.  Each  army  lost  nearly  nine  hundred  men,  about 
one  third  of  its  force.  Neither  side  won.  The  American 
army  then  settled  at  Fort  Erie  near  by,  and  three  weeks 
later  the  English  made  a  desperate  attack  on  the  fort, 
losing  nearly  a  thousand  men,  while  the  Americans  lost 
less  than  a  hundred. 

The  British  had  overrun  a  large  part  of  Maine  and  they 
determined  to  gain  possession  of  northern  New  York. 
General  Prevost  led  a  large  army  down  from  Canada  to 
Lake  Champlain  on  which  there  was  a  British  fleet;  but 
in  a  decisive  battle  on  the  lake  this  fleet  was  captured 
(September  11,  1814)  and  Prevost  hastened  back  to  the 
valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  English  attempt  to  invade 
New  York,  like  the  American  attempt  to  invade  Canada, 
had  ended  in  failure. 


254      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


The  Washington  Campaign.  —  Our  little  navy  had  done 
wonders  on  the  sea  in  the  early  part  of  the  war ;  but  no 
one  expected  it  to  hold  out  long  against  the  British  navy. 
Before  the  end  of  the  war  our  ships  had  nearly  all  been 
captured  or  shut  up  in  the  ports  by  the  English  blockade. 
In  August,  1814,  a  British  fleet  bore  an  army  under 

General  Robert  Ross,  to 
the  waters  of  the  Chesa 
peake.  They  landed  and 
marched  upon  Washing 
ton.  The  Americans 
made  a  feeble  resistance, 

but  were  soon  put  to 

flight  and  the  city  was 
captured.  The  English 
then  wantonly  burned 
the  capitol,  and  other 
public  buildings,  after 
which  they  hastily  with 
drew  and  sailed  for  Bal 
timore.  This  attack 
ended  in  failure.  The 
militia  had  swarmed  into 
Baltimore  by  thousands 
to  defend  the  city. 
General  Ross  had  declared  that  he  "didn't  care  if  it  rained 
militia"  and  boasted  that  he  would  eat  his  Christmas  din 
ner  in  Baltimore.  But  in  the  final  reckoning  Ross  was 
among  the  slain  with  a  bullet  in  his  breast  fired  by  one  of 
the  despised  militia.  While  the  British  fleet  was  bom 
barding  Fort  McHenry  near  Baltimore,  Francis  Scott  Key 
was  inspired  to  write  "  The  Star-spangled  Banner,"  which 
has  become  our  national  hymn. 


WAR   IN   THE   SOUTH 


255 


War  in  the  South.  —  In  the  autumn  of  1814,  Great 
Britain  sent  a  large  fleet  with  an  army  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  commander  was  Sir  Edward  Pakenham,  a 
brother-in-law  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  As  the  army 
landed  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  and  advanced 
toward  New  Orleans  the  people  of  the  city  were  in  a  wild 
state  of  excitement,  as  they  had  no  leader  to  defend  them. 
At  length  the  news  spread  that  Jackson  had  come. 


Cavalry  rat  es 


Jac/csuns  Line  ^.gaga  ^ 


Jf =  ^g^jtp^Z  -= 


British  Batteries  British  Batteries       fcj 

BATTLE  OF  NEW  ORLEANS 


For  some  months  General  Andrew  Jackson1  had  been 
fighting  the  Creek  Indians  of  the  South.  The  year  before 
a  dreadful  massacre  had  taken  place  at  Fort  Mimms, 
Alabama,  nearly  five  hundred  whites  having  been  killed. 
To  avenge  this  outrage  and  to  secure  safety  for  the  future, 
Jackson  had  marched  with  an  army  into  the  Indian  coun 
try  and  had  promptly  defeated  the  red  men.  Hearing 
then  of  the  arrival  of  the  English  he  went  to  New  Orleans, 
riding  through  the  wilderness  for  three  weeks  on  horse 
back. 

1  See  "  Boyhood  of  Jackson,"  p.  285. 


256     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

He  soon  had  three  thousand  men  under  arms  and  an 
embankment  was  thrown  up  eight  miles  below  the  city. 
Here  the  British  made  an  attack  on  the  8th  of  January, 
1815,  and  the  famous  battle  of  New  Orleans  was  fought. 
The  British  assaulted  with  great  bravery,  but  the  Ameri 
cans,  well  protected  behind  earthworks,  suffered  but  little 


THE  BATTLE  OF  NEW  ORLEANS 

while  pouring  a  deadly  fire  into  the  advancing  foe.  The 
result  was  a  fearful  defeat  of  the  English.  They  lost  two 
thousand  men  that  day,  including  General  Pakenham. 
The  American  loss  was  but  thirteen,  six  killed  and  seven 
wounded.  The  English  then  sailed  to  Mobile  and  were 
seen  no  more  on  the  shores  of  Louisiana. 

The  Coming  of  Peace.  —  Two  weeks  before  the  battle  of 
New  Orleans  a  treaty  of  peace  had  been  signed  at  Ghent, 
Belgium  ;  but  as  there  was  no  Atlantic  cable  the  news  of 


THE    HARTFORD   CONVENTION  257 

peace  could  not  reach  America  in  time  to  prevent  the 
battle.  The  terms  of  the  treaty  settled  little,  but  the  result 
of  the  war  was  a  great  moral  victory  _f or  the  Americans. 
The  British  refused  to  put  the  impressment  question  into 
the  treaty  ;  but  they  never  again  attempted  to  impress  our 
seamen.  The  news  of  the  treaty  and  of  Jackson's  victory 
reached  the  eastern  states  about  the  same  time,  and  the 
rejoicing  among  the  people  was  loud  and  long. 

The  Hartford  Convention.  —  The  dying  Federalist  party 
had  opposed  the  war  to  the  last.  They  called  a  conven 
tion  to  meet  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  December,  1814. 
This  convention  sat  with  closed  doors  for  three  weeks. 
What  its  debates  were  is  not  known,  but  its  report1 
showed  that  the  members  were  not  very  patriotic,  that 
they  opposed  the  policy  of  the  administration,  and  con 
sidered  the  subject  of  leading  the  New  England  states  to 
secede  from  the  Union.  But  the  whole  proceedings  came 
to  naught  and  were  made  ridiculous  by  the  news  of  peace. 

Results  of  the  War. —The  War  of  1812,  often  called 
the  Second  War  for  Independence,  or  the  War  for  Com 
mercial  Independence,  was  fought  between  two  peoples 
who  should  always  be  friends,  as  they  stand  for  the  same 
thing  —  for  the  development  of  modern  civilization  and 
human  liberty.  On  the  part  of  Great  Britain  the  war  was 
a  costly  blunder.  With  a  few  slight  concessions  she  might 
have  conciliated  the  United  States  and  made  us  an  ally 
against  Napoleon ;  but  she  suffered  the  contention  to  come 
to  war,  and,  with  all  her  expense  in  men  and  treasure, 
she  did  not  win  a  friend  nor  establish  a  principle,  nor 
acquire  a  foot  of  land. 

On  the  other  hand,  though  the  war  cost  the  United 
States  thirty  thousand  lives  and  $100, 000,000,  it  brought 

1  For  a  statement  of  this  report,  see  Elson's  History,  p.  446. 


258      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

great  advantage  to  our  country.  It  brought  commercial 
independence,  and  never  since  then  have  the  European 
Powers  treated  us  with  contempt.  Before  that  war  the 
United  States  was  never  considered  a  first-class  Power; 
since  then  it  has  never  been  considered  anything  else. 

In  our  home  relations  our  success  was  equally  marked. 
The  long  disturbance  of  foreign  trade  did  much  to  es 
tablish  American  manufactures  on  a  secure  basis,  and 
they  have  grown  greatly  from  that  day.  The  war  also 
played  its  part  in  bringing  about  a  feeling  of  national 
pride  that  was  unknown  before.  Soon  after  this  war  had 
closed  began  that  wonderful  era  of  prosperity  which  has 
swept  down  through  the  century  like  a  tidal  wave,  and 
which  has  no  parallel  in  the  history  of  civilization. 

SUMMARY 

James  Madison  became  President  on  March  4,  1809,  and  served  two 
terms.  He  was  a  wise  and  able  statesman,  but  not  well  fitted  to  manage 
a  war.  Both  England  and  France  continued  their  outrages  on  our 
commerce.  In  1811  two  events,  the  withdrawal  of  our  minister  from 
London  and  the  duel  between  the  President  and  the  Little  Belt,  showed 
the  bad  feeling  between  this  country  and  England. 

War  was  declared  with  England  on  June  18,  1812.  Hostilities  began 
on  the  lakes.  In  August  William  Hull  surrendered  Michigan  to  General 
Brock.  In  October  the  British  won  the  battle  of  Queenstown  Heights, 
where  Brock  was  killed. 

On  the  sea  the  American  victories  astonished  every  one.  The  most 
important  naval  duel  was  that  between  the  Constitution  and  the 
Guerriere,  the  latter  being  captured  and  destroyed.  The  privateers 
played  havoc  with  the  English  merchant  marine. 

In  the  lake  region  the  most  famous  fight  was  that  on  Lake  Erie,  in 
which  Perry  captured  the  entire  British  fleet.  Soon  after  this  General 
Harrison  recovered  Michigan  and  defeated  the  enemy  at  the  Thames. 
Chippewa  and  Lundy's  Lane  were  fought  in  July,  1814,  near  the  Niagara, 
and  a  later  attempt  of  the  English  to  invade  New  York  resulted  in  their 
defeat  and  withdrawal. 


SUMMARY  259 

In  August,  1814,  General  Ross  captured  and  burned  Washington, 
but  was  repulsed  before  Baltimore. 

War  in  the  South.  —  A  large  British  army  under  Sir  Edward  Paken- 
ham  reached  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  late  in  1814.  Jackson  defeated  the 
British  army  near  New  Orleans  on  January  8,  1815. 

The  Treaty  of  Peace,  signed  December  24,  1814,  was  conspicuous  for 
what  it  left  out. 

Great  Britain  gained  no  advantage  by  the  war.  America  gained 
commercial  independence,  triumphed  over  disaffected  elements  at  home, 
and  established  manufacturing  on  a  firm  basis. 

REFERENCES 

Johnson,  "War  of  1812";  Lossing,  "Field  Book  of  the  War  of 
1812";  Roosevelt,  "History  of  the  Naval  War  of  1812";  Hosmer, 
"  The  Mississippi  Valley  "  ;  Cable,  "  Creoles  of  Louisiana  "  ;  and  the 
general  histories  and  biographies. 


CHAPTER   XV 
OPENING  OF  A  NEW  ERA 

THE  War  of  1812,  as  we  have  noticed,  brought  inde 
pendence  from  European  dictation  concerning  our  for 
eign  commerce.  It  also  cemented  the  country  as  nothing 
before  had  done  ;  it  weakened  state  pride  and  strengthened 
national  pride ;  it  played  its  part  in  infusing  into  the  pub 
lic  mind  the  dream  of  continental  dominion  and  national 
greatness. 

The  finances  of  the  country  had  been  mismanaged  and 
were  in  a  distressing  condition  at  the  close  of  the  war, 
and  some  relief  was  secured  by  chartering  another  United 
States  Bank  (1816).  This  bank  was  very  like  the  one  that 
Hamilton  had  founded  in  1791,  the  charter  of  which  had 
expired  in  1811.  It  became  the  repository  of  the  govern 
ment  moneys  and  had  the  power  to  issue  paper  money, 
which  was  received  for  taxes  and  all  debts.  It  afterward 
became  the  object  of  great  contention^^^e  shall  notice 
when  we  reach  Jackson's  administratl^^P^^k 

One  effect  of  the  closing  of  the  war  was  thS  importing 
of  English  manufactured  goods.  The  embargo  and  the 
war  had  kept  these  out  for  some  years,  but  now  they  came 
in  great  quantities,  and  were  sold  at  such  low  prices  as  to 
cause  an  outcry  from  our  own  manufacturers.  The  result 
was  the  enacting  of  a  new  tariff  law  in  1816,  for  the  pro 
tection  of  American  manufacturing. 

260 


FLORIDA  AND   THE   SEMINOLE  WAR  261 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  JAMES  MONROE,  1817-1825 

James  Madison,  after  a  long  service  in  public  life,  the 
last  eight  years  of  which  he  was  President,  retired  to  his 
home  in  Virginia  to  spend  his  remaining  days  in  peace 
and  quiet.  James  Monroe,  also  a  Virginian,  became  his 
successor.  The 
Federalist  party 
had  almost  dis 
appeared.  It  cast 
but  thirty-four 
electoral  votes 
(for  Rufus  King) 
in  1816,  after 
which  it  was  heard 
no  more  in  na 
tional  elections. 

Monroe  was 
not  a  great  Presi 
dent,  but  he  was 
honest  and  faith 
ful  and  so  gener 
ally  popular  that 
his  administration 

was  called    the  JAMES  MONROE 

"  Era   of  ..-g'odd'^P 
feeling."     At  the  end  of  four  years  Monroe  was  reflected 
with  no  candidate  opposing  him. 

Florida  and  the  Seminole  War.  —  Spain  still  owned 
Florida  and  for  years  there  was  irritation  along  our  south 
ern  frontier,  chiefly  through  Indian  raids  from  Spanish 
Florida.  In  1818  General  Andrew  Jackson  was  sent 
against  the  Indians  with  a  body  of  troops  and  he  was  not 


262      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE  UNITED   STATES 

long  in  destroying  the  Indian  power.  The  following  year 
Spain  sold  Florida  to  the  United  States  for  the  sum  of 
$5,000,000.  At  that  time  the  boundary  between  the 
Spanish  possessions  on  the  Pacific  and  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  was  fixed  and  the  line  between  the  Spanish  pos 
sessions  and  the  Oregon  country  was  placed  at  the  42d 
parallel.  The  year  before  this  (1818)  the  line  between 
British  America  and  the  United  States  was  fixed  at  forty- 
nine  degrees,  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the  crest  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  began  the  Oregon  country. 

The  Missouri  Compromise;  Slavery.  —  The  great  con 
test  in  American  politics  over  a  strong  or  weak  government 
(Union  or  Liberty,  Nationality  or  Democracy)  was  fairly 
well  settled  by  1820,  and  about  this  time  arose  another 
most  serious  question,  which  disturbed  the  country  for 
forty  years  and  had  to  be  settled  at  last  by  an  appeal  to 
the  sword.  This  was  the  slavery  question. 

The  history  of  slavery  in  the  United  States  dates  back 
to  the  coming  of  a  Dutch  vessel  to  Jamestown  in  1619. 
As  the  colonies  were  founded  slavery  spread  to  them  all 
but  it  took  a  far  stronger  hold  on  the  South  than  on  the 
North.  England  was  responsible  for  slavery  in  the  colonies. 
When  the  colonies  attempted  to  restrict  the  slave  trade, 
as  several  of  them  did,  the  attempt  was  always  crushed  by 
the  crown.  After  the  Revolution,  the  northern  states 
gradually  emancipated  the  slaves,  but  in  the  South,  where 
slavery  paid  better,  it  grew  stronger.  Especially  was  this 
true  after  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin.  When  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  was  added  to  the  public  domain,  the 
question  soon  arose,  Slavery  or  no  slavery  in  the  great 
West  ? 

Missouri  was  the  first  of  the  trans-Mississippi  territories 
to  apply  for  statehood,  and  when  it  did  so,  this  question 


THE   MONROE   DOCTRINE  263 

came  up  for  settlement.  The  slaveholders  had  stolen  a 
march  by  settling  in  Missouri  with  their  slaves  and  when  a 
state  constitution  was  framed,  it  provided  for  slavery.  A 
great  many  of  the  people,  especially  those  of  the  North, 
believed  that  slavery  was  an  evil  and  should  not  be  ex 
tended.  When  the  subject  of  admitting  Missouri  came  up, 
therefore,  February,  1819,  the  House  voted  that  it  become  a 
free  state.  But  the  Senate  refused  to  agree  to  this  and  the 
matter  was  left  over  to  the  next  Congress. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  next  Congress,  there  was  again  a 
deadlock  between  House  and  Senate  and  the  people  of  the 
country  were  deeply  stirred.  At  length  the  two  houses 
reached  a  compromise  It  was  decided  that  Missouri  be 
admitted  as _a_slave .state,  but4n  all  the  rest  of  the  Louisi 
ana  Purchase  slavery  should  not  exist  north  of  thirty-six 
degrees  and ,  thirty,JB4ftutes^north  latitude.  This  was  the 
famous  compromisejine,  and  it  became  to  the  West  what 
Mason  and  Dixon's  line  was  to  the  East.  The  act  was 
signed  by  the  President  in  March,  I82O.1 
The  Monroe  Doctrine.  —  In  his  message  to  Congress  on 
December  2,  1823,  President  Monroe  gave  expression  to  a 
policy  of  the  country  that  came  to  be  known  as  the 
"  Monroe  Doctrine." 

The  grounds  for  putting  forth  this  doctrine  were  two 
fold —  i,  the  encroachments  of  Russia  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  and,  2,  the  struggle  of  the  South  American  states  for 
their  freedom, 

Russia,  which  owned  Alaska,  was  encroaching  on  the 
American  territory  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  it  was  feared 
that  she  might  get  possession  of  the  California  country  and 
thus  become  a  menace  to  the  United  States.  In  Mexico  and 

1  Missouri,  however,  did  not  enter  the  Union  till  the  following  year,  owing 
to  her  attitude  on  the  admission  of  free  blacks. 


264      SCHOOL    HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

South  America  the  people  had  rebelled  against  Spain,  had 
set  up  republics,  and  practically  won  their  independence. 
Spain  then  appealed  to  other  European  nations  (the  same 
that  had  formed  the  "  Holy  Alliance  "  a  few  years  before) 
for  help  in  putting  down  her  rebellious  colonies. 
Monroe  then  issued  his  message  :  — 

1.  That  the  American  continents  are  no  longer  open  to 
European  colonization. 

2.  That  anj  effort  10  oppress  or  control  the  countries 
south  of  us  by  any  European  power  would  be  considered 
as   showing  an  unfriendly  disposition  toward  the  United 
States. 

The  message  had  an  immediate  effect.  Russia  agreed 
not  to  come  south  of  fifty-four  degrees  and  forty  minutes 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  the  Holy  Allies  gave  up  all 
intention  of  aiding  Spain. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine,  which  has  become  a  fixed  policy 
of  our  country,  has  two  objects :  first,  to  guard  us  against 
encroachments  that  might  threaten  our  peace  and  safety, 
and  second,  to  protect  and  encourage  republican,  as  against 
monarchial,  government. 

WESTERN  MOVEMENT  OF  THE  PEOPLE 

We  have  noticed  the  settlement  and  admission  into  the 
Union  of  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Ohio,  before  the  sec 
ond  war  with  England.  Soon  after  the  war  the  stream 
of  movers  from  the  East  to  the  great  valleys  of  the  Ohio 
and  the  Mississippi  swelled  to  vast  proportions.  The  chief 
attraction  was  the  great  fertility  of  soil,  with  the  splen 
did  growth  of  timber  and  the  abundant  waterways.  The 
population  of  Ohio  rose  from  45,000  in  1800  to  580,000  in 
1820,  and  the  increase  was  scarcely  less  astonishing  in 


MEANS   OF   WESTWARD   TRAVEL  265 

Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  in  the  wilderness  west  of 
Ohio  and  south  of  Tennessee. 

Means  of  Westward  Travel. —  The  vehicle  most  used  was 
the  light  moving  wagon  made  of  wood  and  with  canvas- 
covered  top.  There  were  several  fairly  good  roads  from 
the  East.  One  extended  from  Albany  through  the  Mo 
hawk  Valley  and  on  westward  by  way  of  Buffalo.  A  road 
led  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburg,  and  another  from 
Washington  to  Wheeling  by  way  of  Cumberland,  with  a 
branch  deflecting  southward  into  Tennessee,  and  still  others 
from  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas  into  Alabama  and  Mis 
sissippi. 

A  farmer  wishing  to  better  his  condition  would  pack  the 
goods  that  he  could  take  with  him  in  a  strong,  light  wagon, 


EMIGRANT  WAGONS 

leaving  only  room  for  himself  and  his  family.  Thus 
equipped  they  would  bid  adieu  to  friends  and  kindred, 
often  to  meet  them  no  more,  and  start  out  on  the  long 
journey.  Slowly  they  lumbered  over  hills  and  mountains 
and  across  streams  and  swamps,  encamping  at  night, 
cooking  their  meals  with  utensils  which  they  carried  with 
them.  So  great  was  the  migration  that  sometimes  hun 
dreds  passed  a  given  point  in  a  single  day.  Many  of  the 
movers,  on  reaching  a  tributary  of  the  Ohio  or  Mississippi, 
would  float  down  the  current  on  a  raft  or  flatboat,  carrying 
their  horses,  wagons,  and  goods  with  them.  On  reaching 
their  destination,  a  quarter  section  or  more  of  land  would 
be  purchased  of  the  government,  or  of  some  settler  who 


266      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

had  failed,  for  two  or  three  dollars  an  acre,  on  the  install 
ment  plan  and  the  family  would  settle  in  their  home  in  the 
wilderness  and  begin  life  anew. 

The  Old  Settler.  — With  all  its  hardships  pioneer  life  in 
the  forest  had  its  attractions  and  picturesque  features.  If 
the  land  secured  by  the  early  settler  were  wholly  unim 
proved,  the  family  would  live  in  the  moving  wagon  until  a 
cabin  could  be  built.  The  cabin  was  made  of  logs,  notched 
at  the  ends  so  as  to  fit  at  the  corners,  and  laid  one  above 
another  until  the  house  was  about  ten  feet  high.  There 
was  but  one  room,  one  door,  and  one  window.  The  door 
was  made  of  rough  boards  swung  on  leather  hinges,  and 
opposite  the  door  was  left  an  open  space  on  the  ground 
for  a  fireplace,  the  chimney  being  built  outside  of  flat 
sticks  like  laths,  and  plastered  with  mortar.  The  floor  was 
made  of  planks  hewn  out  with  the  ax,  and  the  roof  of 
lighter  planks  resting  on  rafters  made  of  saplings.  In  such 
a  home  many  a  good  family  lived  for  ten  or  twenty  years, 
the  ancestors  of  many  of  the  leading  men  of  the  nation 
to-day.  The  cabin  built,  the  pioneer  would  begin  battling 
with  the  forest,  clearing  a  few  acres  each  year,  carrying  his 
grain  perhaps  twenty  miles  on  horseback  to  the  nearest 
mill.  Soon  his  land  would  become  more  productive ;  and 
at  length,  if  thrifty  and  industrious,  he  would  build  a  good 
house  and  abandon  the  cabin.  Other  movers  would  settle 
near,  then  a  town  would  be  founded,  and  another,  and  an 
other,  and  eventually  a  railroad  would  be  built  through  the 
new  settlement.  The  community  was  transformed  in 
twenty-five  years ;  the  markets  were  near,  the  comforts  of 
life  multiplied,  the  farm  of  the  first  settler  was  then  worth 
thousands  of  dollars,  and  hundreds  of  acres  were  added  to 
it.  His  children  settled  on  the  farm  or  entered  the  business 
or  the  professional  world,  and  the  "old  settler"  spent 


NEW   STATES  267 

his  declining  years  amid  peace  and  plenty.  He  gathered 
his  grandchildren  about  him  and  told  of  the  days  of  long 
ago,  of  the  long  journey  in  the  moving  wagon,  and  of  the 
time  when  the  forest  frowned  on  every  side  and  the  wolves 
howled  about  his  lonely  cabin  in  the  wilderness. 

New  States.  —  So  great  was  the  migration  to  the  West 
that  within  ten  years  after  the  War  of  1812  more  than  one 
fourth  of  the  population  of  the  country  was  west  of  the 
Alleghanies.  When  Ohio  became  pretty  well  settled,  the 
people  turned  their  eyes  to  the  fair  lands  of  the  Wabash. 
More  than  forty  thousand  people  settled  in  Indiana  in  the 
single  year  of  1816.  In  the  South  the  movement  of  the 
population  was  equally  wonderful.  The  first  state  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley  to  be  admitted  to  the  Union  after 
Tennessee,  was  Louisiana  (1812),  to  be  followed  four  years 
later  by  Indiana.  Indiana  was  the  first  of  six  new  states 
to  enter  the  Union  in  six  successive  years,  as  follows: 
Indiana  (1816),  Mississippi  (1817),  Illinois  (1818),  Ala 
bama  (1819),  Maine  (1820),  Missouri  (I82I).1 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS,  1825-1829 

The  Election  of  1824.  —  As  Monroe's  second  term  drew 
to  a  close,  the  Democratic  party,  having  absorbed  the 
whole  people,  was  divided  into  factions,  and  several  candi 
dates  for  the  presidency  entered  the  field.  When  the  time 
of  election  came,  each  candidate  had  his  following  in  the 
electoral  college  and  no  one  received  a  majority  of  the 
votes.  John  C.  Calhoun  was  chosen  Vice  President,  but 
the  college  failed  to  elect  a  President  and,  for  the  second 
time  in  our  history,  the  choosing  of  a  President  went  to  the 
House  of  Representatives. 

1  For  dates  of  admission  of  all  the  states  see  Appendix,  p.  469. 


268      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

Andrew  Jackson  of  Tennessee,  the  hero  of  New  Orleans, 
had  received  the  highest  number  of  electoral  votes,  ninety- 
nine  ;  John  Quincy  Adams,  son  of  a  former  President, 
received  eighty-four ;  William  H.  Crawford  of  Georgia 
came  third  with  forty-one  ;  and  Henry  Clay  received  thirty- 
seven.  This  shut  Clay  out  for,  according  to  the  Twelfth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  only  the  three  highest 
could  be  voted  for  by  the  House.  John  Quincy  Adams  was 
elected  by  the  House  and  he  chose  Clay  secretary  of  state. 


LAFAYETTE'S  VISIT  TO  BOSTON 
From  an  old  print 

The  Visit  of  Lafayette.  —  The  political  turmoil  of  the 
year  1824  was  relieved  by  the  visit  to  the  United  States  of 
an  aged,  white-haired  foreigner  whom  every  American 
was  ready  to  welcome  as  a  father,  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette. 
Fifty  years  had  passed  since  this  noble  Frenchman  had 
come  to  America  to  offer  his  life  and  his  fortune  in  the 
cause  of  liberty.  Then  a  few  struggling  colonies,  the 
nation  had  now  become  strong  and  powerful.  Never  in 
our  history  has  any  other  foreigner  received  so  glad  a 
welcome,  such  an  enthusiastic  reception  as  that  given  to 
Lafayette.  He  arrived  in  August,  1824,  visited  every  state, 


NEW   DIVISION   OF  PARTIES 


269 


and  spent  the  winter  in  Washington.  Congress  voted  him 
$200,000  and  a  township  of  land  in  Florida  as  part  pay  for 
his  services  in  the  Revolution.  He  laid  the  corner  stone 
of  the  Bunker  Hill  Monument  in  June,  1825,  on  the  fiftieth 
anniversary  of  the  famous  battle.  After  spending  fourteen 
months  as  the  guest  of  a  people  he  had  never  ceased  to 
love,  the  aged  Frenchman  departed  for  his  native  land  in 
the  Brandywine, 
named  after  the  bat 
tle  in  which  he  was 
wounded  in  southern 
Pennsylvania. 

New  Division  of 
Parties.  —  President 
Adams  in  his  first 
message  recom 
mended  a  system  of 
internal  improve 
ments  at  national 
expense.1  This  sub 
ject  and  the  tariff 
brought  about  a  new 
division  of  parties. 
A  large  number  of 
the  people  believed 
as  Adams  did  that 
the  government  should  build  roads,  canals,  and  the  like, 
and  that  a  high  tariff  should  be  maintained.  These  were 
called  National  Republicans.  But  a  still  larger  number 

1  The  most  notable  example  of  this  was  the  Cumberland  Road,  begun  in 
1806,  extending  from  Cumberland  to  Wheeling,  and  later  to  Columbus, 
Indianapolis,  and  St.  Louis.  It  was  later  transferred  to  the  states  in  which  it 
lies. 


JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS 


2/O      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

held  that  each  state  or  community  should  construct  its 
own  roads  and  canals  and  that  the  tariff  should  not  be 
high.  This  party  was  led  by  Jackson.  It  had  been  called 
Democratic-Republican  up  to  this  time,  but  it  now  dropped 
the  term  "  Republican  "  and  used  the  word  "  Democratic," 
by  which  it  is  still  known. 

Congress  did  not  agree  with  President  Adams  on  most 
questions  and  few  party  measures  could  be  carried  out 
during  the  term ;  but  in  1824,  and  again  in  1828,  it  agreed 
to  raise  the  tariff.  This  last  tariff  was  so  high  that  it  was 
called  the  "  Tariff  of  Abominations." 

MEANS  OF  TRAVEL 

The  great  migration  of  people  across  the  mountains  to 
the  West  awakened  an  intense  desire  for  better  modes  of 


travel  and  transportation.  This  came  first  in  the  form  of 
the  steamboat.  By  1825  hundreds  of  steam  vessels  were 
plying  the  waters  of  the  western  rivers.  But  this  was  not 
enough.  Nature  had  thrown  a  mountain  wall  between  the 
eastern  seaboard  and  the  great  valley  of  the  Mississippi. 
This  must  be  overcome  if  in  the  power  of  man  to  do  it,  and 
relief  soon  came  in  two  forms  —  the  canal  and  the  railroad. 


CANALS  271 

Canals.  —  The  first  great  canal  to  be  completed  was  the 
Erie  Canal,  from  Albany  to  Buffalo  —  often  called  Clinton's 
Big  Ditch,  because  Governor  DeWitt  Clinton  of  New  York 
had  done  so  much  to  complete  it.  This  canal  was  a  wonder 
ful  boon  to  New  York.  It  caused  a  reduction  of  freight 
rates  between  Albany  and  Buffalo  to  about  one  tenth  of  the 
former  amount.  It  was  also  a  great  help  to  the  farmers  of 
Ohio  and  other  near-by  states,  as  they  could  now  purchase 


ON  THE  ERIE  CANAL,  1825 

their  hoes,  axes,  and  plows  at  a  fraction  of  their  former 
cost. 

A  rage  for  canals  then  spread  over  the  country  and 
several  others  were  constructed.  But  while  the  people 
were  busy  digging  canals,  another  and  far  superior  means 
of  transportation  came  in  to  attract  public  attention. 

Railroads.  —  Our  vast  system  of  railroads  had  its  begin 
ning  at  this  period.  A  road  was  first  built  from  Philadel 
phia  to  the  Susquehanna  River.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railroad  was  begun  in  1828.  About  this  time  short  rail 
roads  were  being  built  at  Boston,  Charleston,  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  country.  On  all  the  roads  the  cars  were  at 
first  drawn  by  horses.  Steam  engines  for  drawing  railroad 


2/2      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

cars  were  first  brought  from  England  about  1830.  Later 
they  were  manufactured  in  this  country  and  the  drawing 
of  cars  by  horses  was  gradually  discontinued. 

The  first  steam  engines  were  rude  machines  indeed,  and 
they  seldom  ran  more  than  fifteen  miles  an  hour.  Little 
by  little  they  were  improved  until  they  developed  into  the 
magnificent  flyers  of  to-day,  by  which  one  can  cross  the 
continent  in  a  palace  car  at  the  rate  of  sixty  miles  an  hour. 


AN  EARLY  RAILROAD  TRAIN 


The  United  States  at  present  has  a  far  greater  railroad 
mileage  than  any  other  country. 


RELIGION  ;    EDUCATION  ;    LITERATURE 

In  religion  the  intolerant  spirit  of  Puritanism  had 
passed  away,  but  the  people  were  not  less  religious.  The 
pioneers  of  the  West  were  so  scattered  that  it  was  often 
impossible  to  have  churches  convenient  to  all.  Then  was 
instituted  the  "Camp  Meeting."  Men,  women,  and  chil 
dren  would  gather  and  hold  a  religious  festival  in  the  woods, 
covering  days  or  even  weeks.  These  meetings  were  often 
marked  by  the  most  extravagant  shouting  and  shrieking, 


EDUCATION  273 

but  nevertheless  there  was  much  good  accomplished  and 
rough  men  were  brought  to  conversion,  who  might  not 
have  been  reached  in  any  other  way. 

Education  was  one  of  the  first  cares  of  the  early  settlers 
of  the  West.  In  organizing  Ohio  and  other  states  a  section 
of  land  in  each  township  was  set  aside  for  the  basis  of  a 
school  fund,  and  the  little  log  schoolhouse  became  an  im 
portant  feature  in  nearly  every  settlement. 

Small  colleges  also  were  soon  founded.  The  oldest  col 
legiate  institution  west  of  Pittsburg  and  north  of  the  Ohio 
is  Ohio  University,  at  Athens,  Ohio,  organized  by  the  legis 
lature  in  1804. 

Literature  does  not  often  spring  from  new  settlements ; 
the  people  are  too  busy  battling  with  the  forests  and  the 
soil  to  give  much  attention  to  the  refinements  of  life.  We 
must  therefore  turn  to  the  East  for  our  early  literature. 
Much  prose  and  poetry  had  been  written  in  the  Colonial 
and  Revolutionary  periods,  but  few  of  the  early  productions 
are  now  read,  except  the  writings  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 

The  first  American  to  devote  himself  to  literature  and 
win  a  permanent  success  was  Washington  Irving,  who  was 
born  in  1783.  William  Cullen  Bryant,  born  in  1794,  was 
our  first  great  poet,  and  James  Fenimore  Cooper  our  first 
successful  writer  of  fiction.  Henry  W.  Longfellow  and 
John  G.  Whittier,  both  born  in  1809,  were  writing  at  the  time 
of  which  we  are  treating.  Among  miscellaneous  writers 
the  first  to  win  success  were  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  and 
Edgar  Allan  Poe.  All  these  had  published  one  or  more 
successful  books  by  1830. 

A  great  Englishman  once  asked,  "Who  reads  an 
*  American  book '  ?  "  The  question  can  now  be  readily 
answered  in  one  word  —  Everybody. 


2/4      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

SUMMARY 

The  War  of  1812  was  useful  in  bringing  commercial  independence 
and  in  strengthening  the  Union. 

In  1816  a  second  National  Bank  was  chartered  and  a  protective  tariff 
was  enacted. 

Monroe's  administration  was  so  peaceful  and  popular  that  it  was 
called  the  "Era  of  good  feeling."  General  Jackson  defeated  the 
Seminole  Indians  in  1818,  and  Florida  was  purchased  of  Spain  in  1819. 

Missouri  was  admitted  as  a  slave  state  in  1821,  with  the  provision 
that  in  the  rest  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  slavery  should  not  exist 
north  of  thirty-six  degrees  thirty  minutes.  This  is  known  as  the 
"  Missouri  Compromise." 

The  Monroe  Doctrine,  of  December,  1823,  is  intended  to  prevent 
further  encroachment  of  the  European  powers  on  the  soil  of  America. 
The  purpose  is  (i)  to  secure  our  peace  and  safety,  and  (2)  to  encourage 
republican  government. 

A  great  movement  of  the  people  westward  resulted  in  the  admission 
of  six  new  states  in  six  successive  years,  1816-1821. 

In  1824  the  electoral  college  failed  to  choose  a  President  and  the 
House  chose  John  Quincy  Adams.  His  administration  was  not  popular 
and  few  party  measures  could  be  carried  out. 

The  Means  of  Travel  were  vastly  improved  during  the  first  quarter 
of  the  century.  Steamboats  took  the  place  of  flatboats  and  sailboats. 
Canals  and  railroads  brought  wonderful  changes  in  travel  by  land.  The 
Erie  Canal,  completed  in  1825,  went  far  in  making  New  York  the 
Empire  State  and  New  York  City  the  metropolis  of  America.  Canals 
were  soon  supplanted,  in  a  large  measure,  by  the  introduction  of 
railroads. 

REFERENCES 

The  general  histories  aforementioned,  and  Sparks,  "Expansion"; 
Gordy,  "A  Political  History";  Sargent,  "Public  Men  and  Events"; 
Wise,  "Seven  Decades";  Roosevelt,  "Winning  of  the  West";  De 
Tocqueville,  "  Democracy  in  America  " ;  Stanwood,  "  History  of  the 
Presidency  "  ;  Morse,  "  John  Quincy  Adams  " ;  Curtis,  "  Daniel  Web 
ster  "  ;  Schurz,  "  Henry  Clay  "  ;  Sumner,  "  Andrew  Jackson." 


CHAPTER   XVI 
THE  REIGN  OF  JACKSON,  1829-1837 

WE  often  speak  of  Andrew  Jackson's  presidency  as  the 
"  reign  "  of  Jackson,  because  no  other  President  in  time  of 
peace  became  such  a  master  in  American  affairs  as  he  did. 

In  the  election  of  1828  Jackson  was  the  candidate  of  the 
Democrats  and  John  Quincy  Adams  of  the  National  Re 
publicans.  Jackson  was  elected  by  a  large  majority,  and 
John  C.  Calhoun  became  Vice  President  for  a  second  time. 

The  tide  of  democracy  reached  its  highest  point  in  the 
time  of  Jackson.  We  have  noticed  how,  in  the  earlier 
period,  strife  arose  between  those  who  favored  a  govern 
ment  by  the  masses  and  those  who  favored  a  government 
by  the  few.1  The  former  won  and  by  1830  the  rule  of 
the  democracy  was  supreme.  In  few  states  now  was  there 
a  religious  or  property  test  as  a  qualification  to  vote.  And 
at  last  the  people  had  a  President  of  their  very  own. 
Jackson  was  the  first  of  all  our  Presidents  to  rise  from  the 
ranks  of  the  common  people.  All  his  predecessors  had 
come  from  rich  or  aristocratic  families. 

Early  Career  of  Jackson.  —  Andrew  Jackson  migrated 
from  North  Carolina  to  Tennessee,  became  the  first  repre 
sentative  in  Congress  from  that  state,  and  filled  many  other 
positions  of  trust.2 

The  wild  life  of  the  frontier  set  its  mark  upon  Jackson's 
life.  He  killed  Indians  and  wild  animals  and  fought  duels, 

1  See  p.  220.  2  See  "  Boyhood  of  Jackson,"  p.  285. 

275 


2/6      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


as  other  men  of  that  region  did,  and  his  opportunities  for 
culture  were  meager.  He  had  a  violent  temper,  but  was 

honest  to  the  core  and 
of  pure  morals.  He 
leaped  into  fame  at 
New  Orleans  in  1815 
and  ever  after  was  a 
conspicuous  figure. 

When  Jackson  was 
elected  President,  the 
people  rejoiced  greatly, 
for  they  felt  that  he 
was  one  of  their  own 
number.  A  vast  crowd 
came  to  Washington  to 
witness  his  inaugura 
tion.  The  ceremonies 
over,  a  great  reception 
was  held  at  the  White 
House,  and  the  crowds 
ANDREW  JACKSON  trampled  the  fine  car 

pets  with  their  muddy  boots.  Jackson  simply  said,  "  Let  the 
boys  have  a  good  time  once  in  four  years"  —and  nothing 
he  ever  said  gives  a  deeper  insight  into  the  cause  of  his  great 

popularity. 

THE  SPOILS  SYSTEM 

Jackson's  administration  will  be  remembered  in  history 
for  three  things:  i.  For  introducing  the  Spoils  System; 
2.  For  crushing  Nullification  in  South  Carolina;  3.  For 
destroying  the  United  States  Bank. 

The  Spoils  System.  —  By  this  term  is  meant  the  habit 
of  turning  the  old  officials  out  of  office,  when  the  party  in 
power  is  defeated,  and  putting  in  men  who  belong  to  the 


JACKSON   AND   CALHOUN 


277 


party  that  carried  the  election.  The  Presidents  who  pre 
ceded  Jackson  appointed  postmasters,  revenue  collectors, 
and  the  like  because  of  their  fitness,  and  not  because  of 
their  party  leanings,  nor  did  they  dismiss  such  officials 
except  for  incompetence  or  misbehavior.  But  Jackson 
dismissed  many  officials  because  they  did  not  agree  with 
him  in  politics  and  put  men  in  the  offices  who  belonged  to 
his  party.  This  evil  practice  fastened  itself  on  the  country 
and  was  followed  by  all  parties  for  more  than  half  a  cen 
tury.  It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  Civil  Service  Reform 
is  bringing  us  back  to  the  practice  of  the  early  Presidents. 

NULLIFICATION  IN  SOUTH  CAROLINA 

The  outbreak  in  South  Carolina,  known  as  Nullification, 
was  caused  by  a  growing  feeling  of  discontent  which  was 
intensified  by  the  Tariff  of 
Abominations,  passed  in  1828. 
Another  cause  no  doubt  was' 
the  serious  quarrel  between 
the  two  great  southerners, 

Jackson  and  Calhoun.  - 
There  were  striking  similari 
ties  between  these  two  great 
men.  Both  were  born  in  the 
Carolinas,  of  Scotch-Irish  par 
entage  ;  both  entered  Con 
gress  at  the  age  of  thirty 
years  and  were  lifelong  leaders 
in  the  same  great  party.  For 
many  years  they  were  fast 

friends.       But    an    evil    day  JOHN  c  CALHOUN 

came,    and    their    friendship 
was  forever  at  an  end.     About  the  time  of  the  quarrel 


278      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

between  them  the  feeling  of  opposition  to  the  tariff  reached 
its  acute  stage  in  South  Carolina  and  Calhoun  was  the  leader 
in  that  state.  The  spokesman  for  Calhoun  in  the  United 
States  Senate  was  Robert  Y.  Hayne. 

Great  Debate  between  Websterlmd  Hayne.  —  Calhoun  took 
the  ground  that  each  state  is  sovereign,  that  the  Constitu 
tion  is  but  a  compact,  and  that  any  state  might  withdraw 
from  the  compact  and  govern  itself  if  it  preferred  to  do  so. 

Senator  Hayne  was  a  highly  educated,  refined  gentleman 
and  one  of  the  ablest  men  in  the  Senate.  In  1830  he 
voiced  the  doctrine  of  Calhoun  on  state  rights  in  a  notable 
speech.  He  was  answered  by  Daniel  Webster  in  the  most 
famous  speech  ever  delivered  in  the  Senate.  Webster 
took  the  position  that  the  Constitution  is  not  a  compact, 
but  a  law  binding  on  every  state  and  every  individual. 
The  speech  closed  with  the  well-known  words,  "  Liberty 
and  Union  now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable." 

Jackson  crushes  Nullification.  —  The  rumblings  of  dis 
content  in  South  Carolina  broke  into  open  defiance  in 
November,  1832,  when  a  convention  met  at  Columbia 
and  solemnly  declared  the  tariff  of  1828  and  that  of  1832 
null  and  void  in  that  state  after  the  first  of  the  following 
February,  declared  also  that  no  appeal  should  be  made  to 
the  Supreme  Court,  and  that  if  the  government  attempted 
to  use  force,  the  state  would  set  up  a  government  of  its 
own.  This  was  the  famous  Nullification  Ordinance,  and 
it  was  a  daring  step  to  take  while  such  a  man  as  Jackson 
was  President. 

The  iron-willed  President,  while  a  strong  friend  of  state 
rights,  was  an  intense  lover  of  the  Union  and  he  deter 
mined  that  nullification  and  threats  of  secession  should 
be  crushed.  He  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  people  of 
South  Carolina  imploring  them  to  reconsider  their  rash  act 


THE    PRESIDENTIAL   CONTEST  279 

and  warning  them  that  if  they  did  not,  the  soil  of  their 
beloved  state  would  be  drenched  in  blood.  He  then  had 
put  through  Congress  a  Force  Bill  enabling  him  to  send 
troops  to  South  Carolina  to  enforce  the  collecting  of  the 
tariff  duties. 

Meantime  Henry  Clay  brought  in  a  compromise  tariff 
measure,  lowering  the  duties  gradually  for  ten  years. 
This  was  accepted  by  South  Carolina  and  all  danger  of 
armed  collision  was  past. 

JACKSON  AND  THE  BANK 

The  Presidential  Contest.  —  The  year  1832  was  a  stirring 
year  in  American  affairs.  It  was  marked  by  the  troubles 
in  South  Carolina,  by  the  national  election,  and  by  the  con 
test  concerning  the  United  States  Bank. 

For  the  first  time  in  our  history  the  candidates  for  Pres 
ident  and  Vice  President  were  chosen  by  national  party 
conventions,  a  practice  that  all  parties  have  since  followed. 
Before  this  time  candidates  were  named  by  a  Congres 
sional  caucus  or  by  state  legislatures. 

Jackson  was  nominated  for  reelection  by  the  Democrats ; 
Henry  Clay  was  named  by  the  National  Republicans.1  In 
the  midst  of  the  campaign  came  the  bank  contest.  The 
United  States  Bank  had  been  chartered  in  1816,  for  twenty 
years.  It  had  control,  in  a  large  measure,  of  the  finances 
of  the  country.  Jackson  opposed  the  bank  on  the  ground 
that  such  a  powerful  corporation  might  control  the  elections 
and  thus  interfere  with  free  government. 

Henry  Clay  and  his  party  were  favorable  to  the  bank, 
and  to  bring  the  matter  to  a  crisis  he  had  put  through 

1  A  third  party  in  the  field  with  William  Wirt  at  the  head  of  its  ticket  was 
the  Anti-Masonic  party.  It  carried  one  state,  Vermont,  at  the  election.  The 
party  soon  fell  to  pieces. 


280      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


Congress  a  bill  to  re-charter  the  bank  for  twenty  years 
longer,  though  the  old  charter  would  not  expire  until  1836. 

Jackson  vetoed  Clay's 
bank  bill  (July,  1832). 
From  this  time  the 
bank  question  was 
almost  the  only  issue 
of  the  campaign.  The 
Clay  party  took  the 
ground  that  the  de 
struction  of  the  bank 
would  cause  business 
failures  and  bring  dis 
aster  on  the  country. 
But  Jackson  led  his 
party  to  believe  that 
the  bank  was  a  dan 
gerous  institution, 
and  he  was  elected 
by  a  large  majority. 
Martin  Van  Buren 
of  New  York  was  elected  Vice  President. 

Removal  of  the  Deposits.  —  President  Jackson  was  not 
content  with  vetoing  the  new  bank  bill.  He  determined 
to  strike  a  blow  at  the  old  bank  and  destroy  it.  In  the 
fall  of  1833  ne  informed  his  Cabinet  of  his  intention  to 
remove  the  government  deposits  from  the  bank  and  thus 
cripple  it  beyond  recovery.  This  was  a  bold  move  be 
cause  such  a  course  was  sure  to  disturb  the  business  of 
the  country,  as  many  business  men  and  smaller  banks 
were  dependent  on  the  United  States  Bank  for  loans. 

Jackson,  however,  was  inflexible  and  the  deposits  were 
removed.  The  bank  soon  lost  its  influence  and  at  length 


HENRY  CLAY 


FRENCH    SPOLIATION   CLAIMS  281 

ceased  to  exist.  It  is  now  believed  that  Jackson  did  a 
great  service  for  his  country  in  destroying  the  bank,  as 
such  a  monopoly,  controlling  the  money  of  the  people, 
would  have  become  dangerous  to  our  free  institutions  had 
it  continued. 

FOREIGN  RELATIONS  ;  INDIAN  WARS 

So  great  were  the  domestic  affairs  during  Jackson's 
presidency  that  our  foreign  relations  attracted  little  atten 
tion,  though  they  were  of  considerable  importance. 

French  Spoliation  Claims.  —  America  had  a  claim  of 
$5,000,000  against  France  for  the  destruction  of  Amer 
ican  shipping  during  the  presidency  of  Jefferson. 
This  claim  was  admitted  by  France  in  1831,  but  several 
years  passed  and  it  was  not  paid.  Jackson  then  issued  a 
message  concerning  the  matter  which  offended  the  French. 
As  the  claims  were  still  unpaid  Jackson  came  forth  with  a 
second  message,  more  offensive  than  the  first.  This 
brought  a  settlement.  The  administration  also  secured 
settlements  for  similar  long-standing  claims  against  Spain, 
Denmark,  and  the  Sicilies. 

Opening  of  the  West  Indian  Trade.  —  The  settlement  of 
these  claims  pleased  the  people  and  made  Jackson  the 
more  popular.  But  still  more  were  the  people  pleased 
with  the  opening  of  our  trade  with  the  West  Indies,  which 
had  been  closed  some  years  before  by  Great  Britain.  By 
making  some  concessions  to  the  English  the  administra 
tion  won  a  complete  victory  and  the  whole  people,  espe 
cially  those  engaged  in  foreign  trade,  rejoiced  at  the 
advantages  gained  for  our  commerce. 

'  Indian  Wars.  —  There  were  Indian  wars  during  most  of 
Jackson's  administration.  One  of  the  most  notable  of 
these  was  the  Black  Hawk  War  of  1832.  Black  Hawk  was 


282      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

chief  of  the  Sac  and  Fox  tribes  along  the  upper  Mississippi. 
The  war  arose  from  the  usual  cause  of  Indian  wars  —  land 
cessions;  and  resulted  in  the  usual  way  —  in  a  complete 
defeat  of  the  Indians. 

A  more  serious  war  with  the  Indians,  known  as  the 
Second  Seminole  War,  occurred  in  the  South.  It  began  in 
1834  and  continued  for  several  years.  The  Seminoles 
had  agreed  by  treaty  to  remove  beyond  the  Mississippi,  but 
as  they  were  slow  in  starting,  troops  were  sent  to  hasten 
them.  They  resisted,  and  their  leader,  Osceola,  assassinated 
General  Thompson  while  the  latter  was  sitting  at  the  table 
with  some  friends. 

General  Winfield  Scott  was  then  sent  against  the 
Indians.  In  1836  Osceola  was  captured  by  treachery, 
while  under  a  flag  of  truce.  Two  years  later  he  died  in 
prison.  But  the  war  went  on,  continuing  about  seven 
years  ,  and  costing  about  $30,000,000.  Eventually  the 
Indians  were  removed  to  their  lands  beyond  the  Mis 
sissippi. 

Character  of  Jackson.  —  Andrew  Jackson  was  one  of  the 
strongest  characters  in  our  history.  Such  leaders  as  Clay 
and  Webster,  his  lifelong  opponents,  were  powerless 
while  Jackson  occupied  the  political  stage.  Jackson  had 
grave  faults.  He  loyed  his  friends,  and  hated  his  enemies  ; 
he  could  not  govern  his  temper ;  but  he  was  sincerely 
honest  and  loved  his  country  above  all  things.  His  great 
est  service  to  his  country  is  found  in  the  fact  that  many 
thousands  of  his  followers  needed  a  leader  of  just  such 
intense  sincerity  and  patriotism.  They  had  not  learned  to 
love  the  nation  above  the  state ;  they  needed  a  lesson  in 
patriotism,  and  they  received  it  from  Jackson. 

Jackson  was  a  most  devoted  husband  and,  with  all  the 
roughness  of  his-character,  was  extremely  courteous  to  ladies. 


ADMINISTRATION   OF   VAN    BUREN  283 

In  appearance  he  was  tall  and  erect,  his  iron-gray  hair  was 
thrown  back  from  his  forehead,  while  in  his  eye  was  a 
"  dangerous  fixedness,"  and  down  his  cheeks  deep  furrows 
ran.  His  expression  showed  will-power.  An  English 
writer  who  had  met  him  declared  that  he  would  be  singled  out, 
even  among  extraordinary  men,  as  a  man  of  superior  cast. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  VAN  BUREN,   1837-1841 

Martin  Van  Buren  of  New  York  was  elected  to  succeed 
Jackson  as  President  and  Richard  M.  Johnson  of  Kentucky 
was  elected  Vice 
President1  Van 
Buren's  administra 
tion  may  be  treated 
almost  as  a  part  of 
Jackson's,  though 
Van  Buren  never  won 
the  hearts  of  the 
people  as  Jackson 
had  done. 

Van  Buren  was  a 
descendant  of  the 
early  Dutch  settlers 
of  New  York.  He 
served  in  the  United 

States     Senate,    was  MARTIN  VAN  BUREN 

governor     of      New 

York,  secretary  of  state  in  Jackson's  first  term,  and  Vice 
President  during  his  second  term.  He  had  the  name  of 
being  a  cunning  politician ;  but  he  also  exhibited  strong 

1  The  electoral  college  failing   to    choose  a  Vice  President,  Johnson  was 
elected  by  the  Senate. 


284      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

elements  of  statesmanship.  His  administration  must  be 
identified  with  two  things  —  the  panic  of  1837  and  the 
establishment  of  the  independent  treasury. 

Panic  of  1837.  —  At  the  time  of  Van  Buren's  administra 
tion  this  panic,  probably  the  most  disastrous  one  in  the 
history  of  the  country,  was  reaching  its  worst  stage.  It 
was  the  result  of  various  causes,  the  most  important  of 
which  was  the  issue  of  great  quantities  of  paper  money  by 
the  banks,  and  a  reckless  spirit  of  speculation  among  the 
people.  The  crash  came,  as  it  always  will  under  such 
conditions.  Every  bank  in  the  country  suspended  specie 
payments.  Thousands  of  merchants  and  manufacturers 
were  forced  to  the  wall,  and  great  distress  was  brought  on 
the  country.  Van  Buren  called  an  extra  session  of  Congress 
to  deal  with  the  financial  question,  and  recommended  in 
his  message  the  one  and  only  memorable  act  of  his  admin 
istration. 

The  Independent  Treasury. —  By  the  independent  treas 
ury  is  meant  simply  a  private  place  to  keep  the  moneys  of 
the  government  when  not  in  use.  The  measure  did  not 
pass  Congress  at  this  session,  but  three  years  later,  in  1840, 
it  passed  both  houses  and  became  a  law.  A  few  years 
later  the  law  was  repealed  by  another  party,  but  in  1846 
it  was  reenacted  and  is  still  in  force.  The  independent 
treasury,  from  its  many  branches  in  various  cities,  is  often 
called  the  subtreasury.  By  it  the  government  is  relieved 
from  its  dependence  on  the  banks  for  the  care  of  the  pub 
lic  money. 

SUMMARY 

Democracy  had  reached  its  height  at  the  beginning  of  Jackson's 
administration. 

Jackson  was  the  first  of  our  Presidents  to  rise  from  the  ranks  of  the 
common  people.  His  administration  is  remembered  chiefly  for  three 


BOYHOOD   OF   ANDREW   JACKSON  285 

things:  I.  The  introduction  of  the  spoils  system  into  our  national 
politics;  2.  The  crushing  of  nullification  in  South  Carolina;  3.  Destroy 
ing  of  the  United  States  Bank. 

The  most  famous  debate  in  the  history  of  the  Senate  was  that  between 
Webster  and  Hayne  in  1830. 

In  1832  Jackson  was  reflected  over  Clay,  and  in  the  same  year 
occurred  the  Black  Hawk  War,  the  enactment  of  a  tariff  measure, 
nullification  in  South  Carolina,  and  the  passing  and  vetoing  of  a  new 
bank  charter. 

Martin  Van  Buren  of  New  York  succeeded  Jackson  as  President,  and 
his  administration  is  marked  by  the  panic  of  1837  and  the  enactment 
of  the  independent  treasury  law  in  1840. 

NOTE 

Boyhood  of  Andrew  Jackson.  —  In  1765,  two  years  after  the  French  and  Indian 
War  had  closed,  Andrew  Jackson's  parents,  who  were  Scotch-Irish,  came  from  the 
north  of  Ireland  and  settled  in  South  Carolina.  Andrew,  who  was  the  third  son, 
was  born  in  1767,  his  father  having  died  a  few  weeks  before  his  birth.  The  family 
lived  in  a  little  log  hut  in  the  wilderness.  The  mother  sent  her  boys  to  school  a 
few  months  each  year  in  a  log  meetinghouse,  paying  their  expenses  by  spinning 
flax.  When  but  thirteen  years  old  Andrew,  now  almost  as  tall  as  a  man,  became  a 
soldier  in  the  Revolutionary  War  and  was  taken  prisoner.  A  British  officer  ordered 
him  to  clean  his  boots.  The  boy  refused,  declaring  that  he  was  a  prisoner  of  war 
and  would  do  no  menial  service.  The  officer  then  struck  him  with  a  sword  and 
inflicted  a  severe  wound.  The  officer  then  ordered  Andrew's  elder  brother,  who 
was  also  a  captive,  to  clean  his  boots.  He  also  refused  and  received  a  slash  from  the 
sword  which  caused  his  death.  Andrew,  after  a  short  imprisonment,  from  which 
he  was  released  through  the  pleadings  of  his  mother,  walked  forty  miles  to  his  home, 
while  suffering  with  smallpox.  Soon  after  this  his  mother  died  and  he  was  left 
without  immediate  friends.  When  Andrew  reached  the  age  of  eighteen,  he  decided 
to  become  a  lawyer.  He  read  law  for  two  years  and  in  1788  joined  a  party  moving 
to  Tennessee,  which  was  then  a  territory  known  as  Washington  County,  North 
Carolina.  Here  Jackson  made  his  permanent  home,  soon  became  one  of  the  most 
prominent  men  in  the  territory,  and  when  Tennessee  became  a  state  in  1796,  he  was 
its  first  representative  in  Congress. 

REFERENCES 

Books  mentioned  before,  and  Wilson,  "Division  and  Reunion"; 
Channing,  "  The  United  States  "  ;  MacDonald,  "  Jacksonian  Democ 
racy";  Peck,  "The  Jacksonian  Epoch";  and  Sparks,  "Men  who 
made  the  Nation." 


CHAPTER   XVII 
RISE  OF  THE  SLAVERY  QUESTION 

FOR  many  years  before  the  Civil  War  the  most  promi 
nent  issue  in  American  politics  was  the  slavery  question. 

As  early  as  1787,  at  the  time  of  the  framing  of  the  Con 
stitution,  the  North  and  the  South  began  to  take  opposite 
views  of  the  slavery  question.  The  first  great  contest 
between  the  two  sections  was  that  of  1820,  resulting  in 
the  Missouri  Compromise.  This  compromise  was  expected 
to  bring  harmony  between  the  sections,  and,  indeed,  for 
ten  or  fifteen  years  following  1820  there  was  no  great 
agitation  of  the  subject. 

Early  Agitators.  —  First  among  the  early  antislavery 
agitators  was  Benjamin  Lundy,  who  gave  his  life  to  the 
cause  of  the  slave.  He  founded  an  antislavery  paper  in 
1821,  and  made  antislavery  speeches  in  many  states. 
Lundy,  in  one  of  his  tours  through  New  England,  met 
William  Lloyd  Garrison,  a  young  man  of  ardent  spirit, 
who  became  his  fellow-worker.  Garrison  soon  surpassed 
Lundy.  In  1831  he  founded  the  Liberator,  which  he  pub 
lished  for  many  years,  and  in  which  he  denounced  slave 
holders  unsparingly. 

Sentiment  at  the  North.  —  At  this  period  there  was  not 
much  of  an  antislavery  feeling  in  the  North.  A  great 
many  people  believed  slavery  to  be  an  evil ;  but  they  pre 
ferred  leaving  it  alone  to  quarreling  with  the  South  about 
it.  In  the  South  there  was  a  widespread  fear  that  the 

286 


CHANGE   OF   ATTITUDE   IN   THE   SOUTH          287 

agitators  would  awaken  a  spirit  of  insurrection  among  the 
negroes.  This  fear  was  enhanced  by  a  rising  in  Virginia, 
led  by  a  fanatical  slave  named  Nat  Turner,  in  which  sixty- 
one  whites  were  killed. 

At  first  the  agitators  were  frowned  on  by  the  public  in 
the  North.  A  school  in  Connecticut  was  broken  up  and 
the  teacher  thrown  into  prison  for  admitting  colored  chil 
dren.  Other  similar  scenes  were  enacted  in  various  North 
ern  states.  Frequently  the  Abolitionists  were  attacked  by 
Northern  mobs. 

But  at  length  the  agitators  won  such  men  as  Wendell 
Phillips,  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  John  G.  Whittier,  Henry 
Ward  Beecher,  and  other  leading  men,  who  became  con 
verts  to  the  cause  of  abolition. 

Change  of  Attitude  in  the  South;  Petitions.  —  Before 
1836  the  South  had  generally  confessed  that  slavery  was 
an  evil,  which  they  had  inherited,  and  could  not  get  rid  of 
if  they  would ;  but  in  that  year  Calhoun  set  forth  the  doc 
trine  that  slavery  was  a  good  thing.  The  whole  South 
followed  his  lead  and  thenceforth  defended  the  institution 
as. necessary  to  Southern  welfare. 

Meantime  antislavery  societies  were  growing  up  in  the 
North,  and  they  poured  petitions  into  Congress  for  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia.1  At  length 
the  members  of  Congress  grew  so  tired  of  these  petitions 
that  they  made  a  rule  to  lay  all  of  them  on  the  table 
without  debate.  This  was  known  as  the  "gag  rule"  The 
aged  ex-President,  John  Quincy  Adams,  was  then  a  mem 
ber  of  the  House,  and  he  labored  for  several  years  for  the 
repeal  of  the  rule,  and  at  length  succeeded. 

But   it   had  won  for  the  Abolitionists  many  friends  in 

1  Congress  had  no  power  to  abolish  slavery  in  the  states  ;  but  in  the  Dis 
trict  of  Columbia  it  had  full  control. 


288      SCHOOL    HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

the  North,  for  it  was  declared  that  they  had  been  denied  the 
right  of  petition,  which  is  guaranteed  by  the  Constitution. 

Another  source  of  irritation  was  found  in  the  use  of  the 
mails  for  abolition  literature.  Garrison  and  others  sent 
many  papers  and  pamphlets  to  the  South  through  the 
mails,  and  the  people  of  the  South,  fearing  that  the  slaves 
might  be  incited  to  violence,  resisted,  and  on  some  occa 
sions  broke  open  the  mails  and  destroyed  the  objectionable 
literature. 

These  were  the  beginnings  of  a  contest  that  was  to  in 
crease  in  volume  till  the  whole  nation  was  involved  in  a 
mighty  struggle. 

HARRISON  AND  TYLER,   1841-1845 

Founding  of  the  Whig  Party.  —  The  party  opposing  the 
Democrats  in  1828,  and  again  in  1832,  was  called  National 
Republican  ;  but  in  1834  a  new  party  was  founded  and  was 
called  Whig.  The  chief  founder  of  the  new  party  was 
Henry  Clay,  and  he  was  its  leader  as  long  as  he  lived.  In 
1836  the  Whigs  had  little  hope  of  winning  against  Van 
Buren ;  but  in  1 840  they  nominated  William  Henry  Harri 
son  and,  after  an  exciting  campaign,  won  the  election. 

Harrison,  the  son  of  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence,  was  the  hero  of  Tippecanoe,  and  had  been  a 
United  States  senator ;  but  he  was  not  considered  a  na 
tional  statesman  in  any  sense.  After  a  long  public  career 
he  had  retired  to  a  farm  at  North  Bend,  an  Ohio  village 
near  Cincinnati.  His  running  mate  was  John  Tyler  of 
Virginia,  who  had  been  governor  of  that  state.  "  Tippe 
canoe  and  Tyler  too  "  became  the  campaign  cry  of  the 
Whigs. 

A  Democratic  editor  stated  that  Harrison  would  be 
more  in  his  element  in  his  log  cabin  with  a  barrel  of  hard 


DEATH    OF   THE   PRESIDENT 


289 


cider  than  in  the  White  House.  The  Whigs  took  up  this 
cry  and  made  the  log  cabin  the  emblem  of  their  campaign. 
They  won  a  great  vic 
tory,  electing  Harrison 
by  an  electoral  vote  of 
two  hundred  and  thirty- 
four  to  sixty  for  Martin 
Van  Buren. 

Death  of  the  President. 
—  Mr.  Harrison  had  no 
opportunity  to  show 
what  he  could  do  as 
President.  He  was  sixty- 
eight  years  old  at  the 
time  of  his  inauguration 
and  his  health  was  not 
robust.  He  died  on 
April  4,  one  month  after 
becoming  President. 

Tyler  and  the  Bank. 
—  John  Tyler,  who  had  been  elected  Vice  President,  was 
installed  into  the  greater  office  on  the  death  of  Harrison  ; 
but  it  was  not  long  before  he  had  serious  differences  with 
his  party,  which  continued  to  the  end  of  his  term. 

Harrison  had  called  an  extra  session  of  Congress  to  deal 
with  the  money  question.  The  Whigs  were  known  to 
favor  the  establishing  of  a  bank,  similar  to  the  one  Jackson 
had  destroyed.  Congress  was  now  controlled  by  the 
Whigs  and  when  it  met  in  extra  session,  it  passed  a  bank 
bill,  framed  by  Clay.  Tyler  vetoed  the  bill,  to  the  great 
chagrin  of  his  party. 

Some  time  later  Congress  passed  another  bank  bill,  more 
in  accordance  with  Tyler's  views,  as  was  believed ;  but  he 
u 


WILLIAM  HENRY  HARRISON 


2QO     SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


vetoed  this  one  also.  The  Whigs  then  broke  forth  in 
wrath  against  the  President  and  practically  read  him  out 
of  the  party.  All  the  Cabinet  resigned,  except  Daniel 
Webster,  the  secretary  of  state.  Webster  was  at  this  time 
negotiating  a  treaty  with  Lord  Ashburton  fixing  the  north 
ern  boundary  of  Maine.  This  Webster- Ashburton  treaty, 

concluded  in  1842,  set 
tled  a  serious  dispute 
with  England  regard 
ing  the  Northeastern 
boundary  of  the  coun 
try. 

Story  of  Texas.  — 
Mexico  emancipated 
her  slaves  in  1827,  but 
her  northern  province, 
Texas,  which  was  partly 
settled  by  slaveholders 
from  our  own  Southern 
states,  refused  to  do  so. 
In  1836  Texas  declared 
her  independence  from 
Mexico  and  became  an 
independent  republic. 

A  little  later  Texas  sought  admission  into  our  Union  as  a 
state.  But  there  was  much  opposition  in  the  North  to  her 
admission,  as  she  was  sure  to  become  a  slave  state. 

President  Tyler  then  determined  to  make  annexation  the 
great  measure  of  his  administration.  John  C.  Calhoun  at 
length  became  secretary  of  state l  and  he  bent  every  energy 

1  Calhoun  did  not  immediately  succeed  Webster.  Mr.  Upshur  of  Virginia 
filled  the  office  between  the  retirement  of  Webster  and  the  appointment  of 
Calhoun.  Upshur  was  killed  by  the  explosion  of  a  great  gun  (February,  1844) 


NOMINATIONS   OF   THE   WHIGS   AND    DEMOCRATS      291 

to  bring  about  the  admission  of  Texas.  A  treaty  of  annex 
ation  was  signed  and  sent  to  the  Senate,  but  was  defeated 
by  that  body.  The  Texas  question  was  thus  left  over  and 
it  became  an  important  factor  in  the  next  national  election. 

PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION  OF  1844;  OREGON 

President  Tyler,  after  becoming  estranged  from  the 
Whig  party,  had  attempted  to  win  the  leadership  in  the 
Democratic  party.  He  placed  Democrats  in  high  office, 
and  even  called  them  to  his  Cabinet.  The  Democrats 
accepted  his  favors  and  rejoiced  that  he  had  vetoed  the 
bank  bills,  but  refused  to  make  him  their  leader.  Some 
of  Tyler's  friends,  however,  nominated  him  for  the  presi 
dency  ;  but  his  following  was  not  large  and  he  withdrew 
from  the  field  before  the  next  election. 

Nominations  of  the  Whigs  and  Democrats.  —  The  conven 
tions  of  both  parties  met  in  Baltimore  a  few  weeks  apart. 
The  Whigs,  who  met  first,  nominated  their  matchless 
leader,  Clay,  whom  they  fondly  called  the  "  Mill  Boy  of  the 
Slashes  "  and  "  Harry  of  the  West."  Twice  before  had 
Clay  been  a  candidate  for  the  great  office  —  in  1824  and  in 
1832  —  and  twice  he  had  been  defeated.  But  now  his 
party  was  united  and  many  believed  that  he  would  win. 

The  Democrats,  after  taking  several  ballots,  with  three  or 
four  prominent  candidates  before  them,  turned  to  one  who 
had  scarcely  been  thought  of  and  gave  him  the  nomination. 
This  was  James  K.  Polk  of  Tennessee,1  the  first  "dark 
horse,"  or  unexpected  nominee  for  the  presidency,  in  our 

while  on  an  excursion  down  the  Potomac  on  a  government  vessel.  The  Presi 
dent  narrowly  escaped  instant  death. 

1  The  news  of  Polk's  nomination  was  flashed  from  Baltimore  to  Washington 
by  telegraph,  and  this  was  the  first  practical  use  of  that  wonderful  invention. 
See  note  at  end  of  the  chapter. 


292      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

history.  George  M.  Dallas  of  Pennsylvania  was  chosen 
for  second  place  on  the  ticket. 

The  Platforms.  —  The  platforms,  or  declarations  of 
principles,  of  the  two  parties  differed  widely.  The  Whigs 

presented  by 
far  the  more 
brilliant  and 
captivating  can 
didate  ;  but  the 
Democratic 
platform  was 
more  winning. 
It  pronounced 
for  the  immedi 
ate  annexation 
of  Texas,  which 
pleased  the 
South,  and  for 
the  occupation 
of  Oregon, 
which  won  great 
favor  at  the 
North.  The 
Whig  platform 

called  for  internal  improvements,  for  a  re-charter  of  the 
bank,  and  thus  dealt  with  such  questions  as  had  been 
before  the  people  for  a  long  time. 

However,  Clay  might  have  been  elected  but  for  ill- 
advised  letters  that  he  wrote  during  the  campaign,  on  the 
Texas  question,  in  which  he  declared  that  he  was  not  greatly 
opposed  to  annexation.  By  these  letters  he  offended  a 
small  party,  known  as  the  Free  Soil  Party.  This  party 
was  bitterly  opposed  to  the  annexation  of  Texas.  Many 


SETTLEMENT   OF   THE   OREGON   BOUNDARY      293 

of  its  members  were  thinking  of  voting  for  Clay,  until  he 
wrote  these  letters.  They  then  turned  fiercely  against  him 
and  supported  their  own  candidate,  James  G.  Birney.  On 
this  account  Clay  failed  to  carry  the  pivotal  states  of  New 
York  and  Michigan,  and  Polk  was  elected. 

The  slavery  question  thus  played  an  important  part  in 
the  election  of  i844,-and,  it  is  believed,  prevented  the  elec 
tion  of  the  great  Whig  leader  and  restored  the  government 
to  the  Democratic  party. 

In  the  Cabinet  of  the  new  President  we  find  at  least  two 
men  well  known  to  fame  —  George  Bancroft,  the  historian,1 
and  James  Buchanan,  a  future  President.  At  the  first 
Cabinet  meeting  President  Polk  declared  that  there  were 
four  great  measures  that  should  be  the  measures  of  his 
administration:  i.  A  reduction  of  the  tariff ;  2.  A  reenact- 
ment  of  the  independent  treasury  law ;  3.  The  settlement 
of  the  Oregon  boundary ;  and  4.  Acquisition  of  California. 

James  K.  Polk  was  a  strong  and  able  President.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  sturdy  farmer,  the  eldest  of  ten  children, 
and  born  in  North  Carolina.  He  had  moved  to  Tennessee, 
had  been  governor  of  that  state,  and  had  served  fourteen 
years  in  Congress,  being  Speaker  of  the  House  for  two 
terms.  Polk  was  a  man  of  stanch  character,  and  he  pro 
ceeded  with  much  vigor  to  carry  out  the  four  measures 
we  have  mentioned. 

The  independent  treasury  was  reestablished  in  1846, 
and  in  the  same  year  the  tariff  was  reduced  by  the  enact 
ment  of  the  Walker  Tariff.2  This  tariff  was  in  force  for 
eleven  years. 

Settlement  of  the  Oregon  Boundary.  —  Oregon  was  the 
name  of  the  vast  region  in  the  Northwest,  comprising 

1  Bancroft  soon  resigned,  and  was  sent  as  minister  to  England. 

2  So  called  because  framed  by  Robert  J.  Walker,  secretary  of  the  treasury. 


294     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

half  a  million  square  miles.  Both  England  and  the  United 
States  claimed  the  whole  of  Oregon,  and  if  either  country 
had  been  weak  and  the  other  strong,  the  latter  would  doubt 
less  have  secured  the  whole.  But  as  both  were  strong  and 
as  neither  wished  to  go  to  war  over  the  matter,  it  was 
decided  to  compromise  and  the  Oregon  country  was  divided 
in  the  middle.  The  American  claim  was  based  on  actual 
occupation  (some  ten  thousand  Americans  having  settled 
in  Oregon  by  1845),  on  the  voyage  of  Captain  Grey,  who 
in  1792  had  sailed  up  the  Columbia  River,  and  on  the  ex 
pedition  of  Lewis  and  Clarke.  The  northern  boundary 
of  Oregon  was  supposed  to  be  fifty-four  degrees  and  forty 
minutes  north  latitude,  and  the  Democrats  had  made  "  Fifty- 
four  forty  or  fight"  a  campaign  cry  in  1844.  But  this 
could  not  be  adhered  to,  and  the  two  countries  decided  on 
a  compromise,  each  taking  half  of  Oregon.  The  line  of 
forty-nine  degrees,  which  had  been  made  the  boundary  from 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the  crest  of  the  Rocky  Moun 
tains,  was  now  extended  through  the  Oregon  country  to  the 
Pacific.  The  part  that  fell  to  the  United  States  now  com 
prises  the  great  states  of  Washington  and  Oregon  and 
parts  of  Montana  and  Idaho. 

THE  MEXICAN  WAR 

What  right  President  Polk  had  to  make  the  acquisition 
of  California  a  measure  of  his  administration,  has  never 
been  explained.  California  belonged  to  Mexico  and  that 
country  had  refused  to  sell  it. 

California  was  the  vast  region  in  the  Southwest,  since 
carved  into  several  states  and  territories.  The  soil  of  large 
tracts  of  it  was  exceedingly  fertile  and  no  more  delightful 
climate  could  be  found  in  the  world. 


THE   DISPUTED   TERRITORY 


295 


How  could  President  Polk  secure  this  most  desirable 
country  ?  The  answer  soon  came  in  the  approaching  war 
with  Mexico. 

A  boundary  dispute  between  Mexico  and  Texas  was  the 
supposed  cause  of  the  war.  The  real  cause  was  the  fact 
that  President  Polk  and  the 
majority  of  the  American 
people  wanted  California, 
even  at  the  cost  of  blood 
shed. 

The  Disputed  Territory.  - 
Texas  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  in  1845,  the  bill  for 
admission  being  passed  be 
fore  Polk  was  inaugurated. 
This  explains  why  Polk  did 
not  name  five  instead  of 
four  great  measures  for 
his  administration.  Texas 
claimed  the  Rio  Grande 
River  as  her  southern  boundary  while  Mexico  declared  it 
was  the  Neuces  River.  The  territory  between  the  two 
rivers,  therefore,  was  in  dispute  and  the  United  States  took 
the  side  of  Texas. 

General  Taylor  in  Mexico.  —  While  this  dispute  was  un 
settled  and  before  the  declaration  of  war  was  made  by 
either  country,  President  Polk  sent  an  army  under  General 
Zachary  Taylor  to  the  disputed  territory,  and  the  Mexicans 
stationed  an  army  at  Matamoras  on  the  Rio  Grande.  In 
May,  1846,  these  two  armies  came  together  and' fought 
two  slight  battles,  called  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la 
Palma,  in  both  of  which  the  Mexicans  were  defeated. 
Taylor  then  crossed  the  river,  captured  Matamoras,  and 


GENERAL  WINFIELD  SCOTT 


296     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


THE   MEXICAN    CAMPAIGN 


in  September  took  the  town  of  Monterey,  after  a  bloody 
siege. 

General  Taylor  was  then  ordered  to  send  more  than  half 
his  army  to  General  Scott,  who  was  proceeding  to  Vera 
Cruz  by  sea.  Taylor  did  this  and  was  left  with  only  about 
five  thousand  men  in  the  midst  of  a  hostile  people.  But 
strange  to  say,  his  greatest  victory  was  yet  before  him. 
Santa  Anna,  who  had  become  the  Mexican  commander, 

with  an  army  of  twenty  thousand 
men,  met  Taylor  at  Buena  Vista, 
and  the  battle  of  that  name  was 
fought  (February  23,  1847).  The 
result  was  a  complete  victory  for 
Taylor,  and  this  was  his  last  ser 
vice  in  the  Mexican  War. 

Scott's  Great  March  on  Mex 
ico.  —  General  Winfield  Scott 
reached  Vera  Cruz  with  some 
twelve  thousand  men  and  cap 
tured  the  city  in  March,  1847. 
He  then  began  his  famous 
march  up  the  mountains  toward 
the  city  of  Mexico.  Santa  Anna,  having  collected  another 
army,  met  Scott  at  a  mountain  pass  called  Cerro  Gordo,  and 
a  fierce  battle  was  fought.  The  Americans  were  completely 
successful.  They  then  swept  on  up  the  mountains,  reach 
ing  the  summit,  eight  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  in  mid 
summer. 

In  August  two  or  three  battles  were  fought  and  in  Sep 
tember  the  city  of  Mexico  surrendered  to  the  conquerors 
from  the  North.  The  war  was  over.  It  had  continued 
nearly  a  year  and  a  half  and  the  Americans  had  won  in 
every  engagement. 


RESULTS   OF   THE   MEXICAN   WAR  297 

Meantime  the  California  country  had  been  "conquered," 
chiefly  by  John  C.  Fremont,  a  noted  mountain  explorer  of  the 
West.      The  few 
scattered      Mexi 
cans     had     been 
driven    out     and 
the    country   was 
held      by      the 
Americans. 

Results  of  the 
Mexican  War.  — 
The  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed 
in  February,  1848. 
As  every  one  had 
foreseen,  the  war 
resulted  in  the 
"  acquisition  of 
California"  bythe 
United  States. 
That  vast  fertile 

region  was  ceded  by  Mexico  simply  because  Mexico  was  ! 
helpless  and  could  not  do  otherwise.      Our  government, 
however,  did  an  honorable  thing  in  the  matter.      It  paid 
Mexico  $15,000,000  for  the  ceded  lands,  though   Mexico 
had  no  power  to  demand  anything.1 

The  Wilmot  Proviso.  —  While  the  armies  were  busy  on 
Mexican  soil,  there  were  lively  scenes  in  Congress.  Not 

1  Five  years  later  the  United  States  purchased  from  Mexico  the  Messilla 
Valley,  about  forty-five  thousand  square  miles  of  southern  Arizona,  for 
$10,000,000.  The  purchase  was  arranged  by  Captain  Gadsden,  and  is 
known  as  the  Gadsden  Purchase.  See  map  following  p.  428,  showing  the 
Territorial  Growth  of  the  United  States. 


298      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

since  the  time  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  in  1820  had 
there  been  such  agitation  in  Washington.  In  August, 
1846,  while  a  debate  on  a  bill  to  appropriate  a  sum  of 
money  for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  difficulties  with 
Mexico  was  in  progress,  David  Wilmot,  a  member  of  the 
House  from  Pennsylvania,  added  a  proviso  that  slavery 
be  forever  excluded  from  the  lands  to  be  acquired  from 
Mexico.  This  became  known  as  the  Wilmot  Proviso.  It 
involved  the  great  question  that  had  brought  about  the  war. 

The  whole  South  flared  up  against  the  proviso.  It  did 
not  become  a  law,  but  the  principle  involved  caused  great 
commotion  and  a  few  years  later  threatened  the  very 
foundations  of  the  Union. 

Discovery  of  Gold  in  California.  —  Little  did  the  people 
of  Mexico  dream  of  the  hidden  wealth  that  lay  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  lands  they  had  ceded  to  the  United 
States.  Gold  was  discovered  in  California  a  few  days 
before  the  treaty  was  signed.1  In  the  course  of  a  few 
months  the  people  of  the  coast  were  greatly  excited  over 
the  new  discovery.  The  news  soon  spread  to  every 
civilized  land  and  was  published  in  all  the  leading  news 
papers  of  the  world.2 

Then  began  a  rush  for  the  California  gold  fields.  Many 
from  the  East  left  their  various  occupations  and  set  out  for 
California,  —  some  by  way  of  Cape  Horn,  others  braving 
the  deadly  climate  of  Panama,  while  thousands  crossed  the 
western  plains  in  moving  wagons.  A  few  of  these  early 
settlers  on  the  coast  realized  their  dream  of  wealth ;  a 

1  Gold  was  first  discovered  by  James  Marshall,  a  carpenter  in  the  employ  of 
John  A.  Sutter,  on  the  American  River,  near  the  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains. 

2  For  a  fairly  full  account  of  the  gold  discovery  see  Elson's  "  Side  Lights," 
Series  II,  Chapter  XIII. 


SUMMARY  299 

greater  number  gained  but  a  modest  competence,  but  the 
majority  met  disappointment  and  returned  broken  in  health, 
or  rilled  an  unknown  grave  in  the  wilderness. 

SUMMARY 

The  slavery  question  overshadowed  all  others  for  many  years  before 
the  war.  The  most  vigorous  agitator  in  the  early  thirties  was  William 
Lloyd  Garrison  ;  he  founded  the  Liberator  in  1831. 

For  years  the  agitators,  or  Abolitionists,  were  despised  in  the  South 
and  the  North,  but  at  length  they  won  the  favor  of  many  influential 
men.  They  poured  antislavery  petitions  into  Congress  ;  but  Congress 
made  the  "  gag  rule,1'  by  which  the  petitions  were  ignored.  This  rule 
was  repealed  through  the  efforts  of  John  Quincy  Adams. 

The  Whig  Party  was  founded  while  Jackson  was  President.  It 
elected  Harrison  and  Tyler  in  1840.  Harrison  died  a  month  after  his 
inauguration,  and  Tyler,  who  succeeded  him,  did  not  agree  with  his 
party. 

Texas  was  annexed  to  the  Union  in  1845,  after  much  opposition  had 
been  overcome. 

In  the  election  of  1844  James  K.  Polk  defeated  Henry  Clay.  The 
four  great  measures  of  Folk's  administration  were:  i.  the  reenactment 
of  the  independent  treasury  law ;  2.  The  enactment  of  the  Walker 
Tariff;  3.  Settlement  of  the  Oregon  boundary,  and  4.  The  acquisition 
of  California.  This  last  was  the  result  of  a  war  with  Mexico,  which  was 
caused  by  a  boundary  dispute  in  Texas.  Soon  after  the  war  was  over 
gold  was  discovered  in  California,  and  in  the  next  few  years  many 
thousands  of  people  went  to  the  Pacific  coast  in  search  of  gold. 

NOTES 

Morse  and  the  Telegraph.  — Samuel  F.  B.  Morse  had  labored  for  years  on  the 
telegraph,  and  had  almost  reduced  himself  to  penury.  In  1842  he  was  granted 
the  privilege  of  setting  up  his  telegraph  in  the  lower  rooms  of  the  Capitol.  The 
experiment  was  successful,  and  the  members  of  Congress  could  hardly  believe  their 
senses  as  Morse  enabled  them  to  converse  with  one  another  from  the  different 
rooms.  And  yet  when  he  asked  an  appropriation  of  $30,000  to  establish  an  experi 
mental  line  from  Washington  to  Baltimore,  there  was  much  opposition.  Many 
were  the  shafts  of  ridicule  thrust  at  the  new  invention.  One  member  moved  that  half 
the  appropriation  be  used  to  experiment  in  mesmerism  ;  another,  that  an  appropria 
tion  be  made  to  construct  a  railroad  to  the  moon.  One  prominent  member 


3<DO     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

pronounced  all  "magnetic  telegraphs  miserable  chimeras,  fit  for  nothing."  Another 
lost  his  seat  in  the  House  at  the  next  election  because  he  voted  for  the  appropria 
tion.  While  the  debate  was  in  progress,  Morse  stood  leaning  against  the  railing  in 
the  House  in  great  agitation.  A  friend  went  to  console  him,  and  Morse,  placing 
his  hand  to  his  head  said,  "  I  have  an  awful  headache.  ...  I  have  spent  seven 
years  in  perfecting  this  invention,  and  all  that  I  had.  ...  If  the  bill  fails,  I  am 
ruined.  ...  I  have  not  money  enough  to  pay  my  board  bill."  He  was  greatly 
relieved  soon  after  by  the  passing  of  the  bill.  His  fortune  was  made,  and  the  name 
of  Morse  must  forever  be  inseparable  from  the  telegraph.  See  Sargent's  "  Public 
Men  and  Events,"  Vol.  II,  p.  193. 

The  Dorr  Rebellion.  —  Rhode  Island,  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
retained  its  charter  government,  and  many  of  the  people  were  dissatisfied  at  the 
limited  suffrage.  In  1842  a  portion  of  the  citizens  led  by  Thomas  W.  Dorr,  a  young 
lawyer,  rose  in  an  effort  to  secure  a  new  constitution.  A  new  government  was  set 
up,  but  the  insurgents  were  dispersed  by  national  aid,  and  Dorr  was  taken  captive. 
He  was  tried  for  treason,  and  sentenced  to  prison  for  life,  but  was  afterward  par 
doned.  Dorr's  principles  prevailed  in  the  end,  and  were  embodied  in  the  new 
constitution. 

Anti-rent  Riots.  —  An  uprising  in  New  York,  known  as  the  "Anti-rent"  riots 
began  in  the  year  1839.  Many  farmers  along  the  Hudson  were  obliged  to  pay  a 
small  annual  rent  to  the  descendants  of  the  patroons  of  the  old  Dutch  days.  These 
tenants  now  determined  to  discontinue  the  payments.  They  held  anti-rent 
meetings  and  resisted  the  officials.  After  some  years  of  agitation  the  matter  was 
compromised.  A  lump  sum  was  paid  the  landlords  and  the  payment  of  annual 
rents  was  abolished. 

REFERENCES 

Macy,  "Political  Parties"  ;  Lodge,  "Daniel  Webster"  ;  Larned, 
"History  for  Ready  Reference";  Smith,  "  Liberty  and  Free  Soil  Par 
ties  "  ;  Rhodes,  "  History  of  the  United  States  from  the  Compromise  of 
1850,"  Vol.  I ;  and  the  general  works  that  have  been  named. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

COMPROMISE   MEASURES   OF    1850  ;  THE  KANSAS- 
NEBRASKA  BILL 

SEVERAL  measures,  known  as  the  Compromise  of  1850, 
and  sometimes  called  the  Omnibus  Bill,  were  brought 
about  by  the  Mexican  War  and  had  a  profound  effect 
on  the  country.  *  But  before  treating  of  these  we  must 
notice 

The  Presidential  Election  of  1848.  —  The  war  brought 
before  the  American  people  one  question  of  serious  im 
portance  ;  namely,  Shall  the  lands  acquired  from  Mexico 
become  slave  territory  or  free  ?  Much  would  depend  on 
the  next  President.  Who  would  he  be  ? 

The  war  toward  its  close  became  unpopular.  The  peo 
ple  of  the  North  feared  that  the  California  Country 
would  become  slave  territory  ;  the  South  feared  that  it 
would  not.  Thus,  for  opposite  reasons,  both  sections  lost 
interest  in  the  war,  and  the  party  in  power  suffered  in 
consequence.  The  Whigs  were  hopeful.  They  nominated 
General  Zachary  Taylor,  though  he  had  never  voted  and 
knew  but  little  of  national  politics. 

The  Democrats  nominated  Lewis  Cass  of  Michigan. 
Cass  was  an  interesting  man.  He  had  been  governor  of 
Michigan  Territory  for  eighteen  years,  had  served  in  the 
Cabinet  of  Jackson,  had  been  minister  to  France,  and  United 
States  senator.  But  the  hearts  of  the  people  were  with 
the  old  war  horse,  the  hero  of  Buena  Vista,  and  he  was 

301 


302      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

elected.  Millard  Fillmore  of  New  York  was  elected  Vice 
President. 

We  have  noticed  how  a  third  party,  the  Free  Soil  party, 
caused  the  defeat  of  Clay  in  1844.  The  same  party  now 
caused  the  defeat  of  Cass.  It  nominated  Martin  Van  Buren 
and  he  polled  such  a  large  vote  in  New  York,  again  the 
pivotal  state,  as  to  throw  that  state  to  Taylor. 

The  great  question  for  the  new  administration  to  decide 
was  that  brought  forward  in  the  Wilmot  Proviso  —  slavery 
or  no  slavery  in  the  great  Southwest.  All  eyes  turned  to 
the  new  President.  He  was  a  native  of  Virginia ;  he 
owned  a  plantation  in  Louisiana  with  one  hundred  and 
fifty  slaves,  and  the  South  hoped  for  much  from  him.  But 
Taylor  had  declared  that  he  would  not  be  a  sectional 
President. 

The  discovery  of  gold  meantime  played  a  great  part  in 
making  California  a  free  state.1  The  men  who  went  to 
the  mines  were  not  slave  owners.  Most  of  them  were 
laborers  without  property,  and  they  did  not  relish  the  idea 
of  inviting  the  black  bondsman  to  become  a  sharer  of  their 
toil.  In  1849,  therefore,  when  the  Calif ornians  met  in 
convention  and  framed  a  state  constitution,  they  excluded 
slavery  by  a  unanimous  vote. 

President  Taylor  then  showed  his  courage  and  patriotism 
by  recommending  that  California  be  admitted  a  free  state. 
The  South  was  greatly  chagrined  over  the  turn  of  affairs. 
The  slaveholders  had  fondly  hoped  to  make  slave  states 
of  the  Southwest,  so  as  to  preserve  their  power  in  the 
Senate  ;  and  now  to  have  this  fairest  portion  elude  them 
was  discouraging  in  the  extreme.  They  threatened  to  secede 

1  No  other  state  had  been  settled  so  rapidly  as  had  California.  In  a  year 
and  a  half  after  the  discovery  of  gold  the  population  exceeded  a  hundred 
thousand. 


THE   OMNIBUS    BILL  303 

from  the  Union  if  California  were  not  divided  and  the 
southern  half  made  a  slave  state.  A  convention  of  south 
ern  statesmen  met  at  Nashville  and  decided  that  a  state  had 
the  right  to  secede  from  the  Union. 

CLAY'S  LAST 'GREAT  SERVICE 

From  the  founding  of  the  government  to  the  Civil  War 
the  darkest  and  most  threatening  year  was  1850.  The 
South  was  greatly  agitated  over  free  California  ;  the  North 
was  divided,  some  willing  to  yield  to  the  South  for  the  sake 
of  peace,  others  declaring  that  slavery  should  encroach  no 
further  on  free  soil.  While  the  country  was  in  this  un 
settled  state,  Congress  met.  In  the  Senate  for  the  last 
time  was  the  great  triumvirate,  —  Clay,  Webster,  and  Cal- 
houn, — all  of  whom  had  figured  in  every  important  govern 
mental  movement  for  forty  years. 

The  Omnibus  Bill.  —  Henry  Clay  took  the  lead  and  early 
in  the  session  came  forward  with  a  bill  containing  several 
items,  known  as  the  Omnibus  Bill,  which  he  declared  to 
be  necessary  to  the  salvation  of  the  country.  Two  items 
in  this  bill  were  of  great  importance  —  the  admission  of 
California  and  the  proposed  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  This 
bill  absorbed  the  attention  of  Congress  for  nearly  nine 
months  and  was  at  length  passed  in  sections.  Clay  an 
nounced  that  on  a  certain  day  in  February  he  would  speak 
on  his  bill  and  thousands  of  people  came  to  Washington 
to  hear  this  last  great  effort  of  his  life. 

Three  great  speeches  were  delivered  in  March  by  Cal- 
houn,  Webster,  and  William  H.  Seward  of  New  York. 
Calhoun  had  written  his  speech,  but  he  was  so  feeble  that 
he  could  not  read  it  and  this  was  done  by  another.1  In 

1  Calhoun  died  on  the  last  day  of  March,  1850. 


304      SCHOOL    HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


this  speech  he  showed  how  one  bond  after  another  that 
held  the  North  and  the  South  together  had  been  snapped, 
and  called  upon  the  North  to  cease  encroaching  upon  the 
rights  of  the  South. 

Webster  spoke  a  few  days  later  and  awakened  much  oppo 
sition  in  his  own  section  by  denouncing  the  Abolition  party 

of  the  North  and 
by  favoring  the 
proposed  Fugi 
tive  Slave  Law. 

Seward  fell  be 
low  Webster  in 
oratorical  power, 
but  he  made  some 
telling  points. 
He  declared  that 
a  Fugitive  Slave 
Law  could  not  be 
enforced  in  the 
North,  and  that 
there  was  a 
"  higher  law  than 
the  Constitution," 
the  law  of  con 
science. 

Death  of  Presi 
dent  Taylor.  — 
Twice    had     the 
Whigs   elected  a 

soldier  President,  and  twice  were  they  called  on  to  mourn 
the  death  of  their  President  before  his  term  was  half  fin 
ished.  Taylor  died,  after  a  brief  illness,  on  the  Qth  of 
July,  1850.  Millard  Fillmore,  who  had  been  elected  Vice 


DANIEL  WEBSTER 


ENACTMENT   OF   THE   COMPROMISE 


305 


President,  was  now  installed  into  the  office.  Fillmore,  who 
had  been  a  leading  lawyer  of  Buffalo  and  a  member  of 
Congress,  had  risen  from  the  lowest  walks  of  life  by  in 
dustry  and  toil.  As  President  he  favored  the  enactment 
of  a  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  contrary  to  the  sentiment  in  his 
own  section ;  but  he  was  doubtless  honest  and  his  object 
was  to  quiet  Southern  agitation  over  free  California. 

Enactment  of  the  Compromise.  —  The  death  of  the  Presi 
dent  had  but  temporarily  disturbed  the  debates  on  the 
compromise.  The  various 
items  were  passed  sepa 
rately  in  August  and  Sep 
tember.  Two  of  these, 
as  stated,  were  of  great 
significance,  free  Califor 
nia  being  offensive  toXhe 
South,  and  the  Fugitive 
Slave  measure  to  the 
North.1  The  South,  how 
ever,  at  length  agreed  to 
accept  free  California, 
with  the  understanding 
that  the  North  would 
honestly  observe  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Act,  which 
became  a  law  in  Septem 
ber.  But  the  enforcement  of  this  law  depended,  not  on 
Congress  and  the  politicians,  but  on  the  will  and  con 
science  of  the  people. 

The  Fugitive  Slave  Law  was  intended  to  aid  the  slave 

1  Other  items  of  the  Omnibus  Bill  were  :  organizing  New  Mexico  as  a  terri 
tory  without  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  paying  Texas  $10,000,000  for  her  claim  on 
New   Mexico,  and  abolishing  the  slave  trade  in    the  District  of  Columbia. 
X 


MILLARD  FILLMORE 


306      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

owner  in  capturing  his  slaves  if  they  attempted  to  run 
away.  A  similar  law  had  been  enacted  fifty-seven  years 
before,  while  Washington  was  President,  but  had  seldom 
been  enforced.  This  law  of.  1850  did  not  permit  the  slave 
to  testify  in  his  own  behalf,  and  the  benefit  of  a  jury  was 
denied  him.  If  his  pursuer  testified  that  he  was  the  man 
wanted,  the  commissioner  before  whom  he  was  tried  usually 
decided  against  the  accused. 

Fugitive  Slave  Law  in  Operation.  —  Could  this  law  be 
enforced  ?  Thousands  of  people  believed  that  a  man  held 
in  bondage  for  no  crime  —  simply  because  of  the  color  of 
his  skin  and  the  accident  of  his  birth  —  had  a  right  to  escape 
if  he  could.  Many  were  inclined  to  aid  the  fleeing  black 
man ;  but  the  law  demanded  that  they  aid  his  pursuer,  if 
called  on  to  do  so.  Thousands  of  people  in  the  North 
now  determined  to  follow  the  "higher  law"  of  conscience 
rather  than  the  law  of  the  land.  The  result  was  that  many 
negroes  made  their  escape  through  the  aid  of  Northern 
sympathizers,  and  many  were  the.  exciting  scenes,  some 
times  resulting  in  bloodshed,  but  more  frequently  in  the 
escape  of  the  runaway.  The  law  was  denounced  from 
thousands  of  pulpits,  and  by  the  press  of  the  North,  as  an 
unjust  and  wicked  measure.  Many  of  the  Northern  states 
passed  personal  liberty  laws  for  the  protection  of  free 
blacks,  or  for  regulating  the  slave-catching  business.  A 
few  even  demanded  a  trial  by  jury  for  the  fugitive.  This 
was  practically  nullifying  the  national  law. 

The  Underground  Railroad.  —  There  were  many  negroes 
in  the  North  who  had  at  some  time  escaped  from  slavery. 
All  these  were  now  subject  to  arrest  under  the  new  law. 
Furthermore,  there  was  an  ever  increasing  stream  of  slaves 
escaping  to  the  free  states.  Many,  it  is  true,  had  no  desire 
to  escape,  either  from  gross  ignorance,  or  because  they  were 


UNCLE   TOM'S   CABIN  307 

kindly  treated  by  humane  masters.  But  many  watched  for 
an  opportunity  and  escaped  to  the  North.  Seldom,  how 
ever,  would  they  have  succeeded  in  evading  their  pursuers 
had  they  not  been  aided  by  people  of  the  North.  Some 
Northern  people  gave  their  whole  time  to  aiding  the  fugi 
tives  ;  they  had  regular  stations  ten  miles  or  more  apart 
where  they  hid  the  runaways  during  the  day  and  sent  them 
on  their  way  at  night.  This  system  was  known  as  the 
Underground  Railroad. 

The  forcing  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  on  the  Northern 
people  was  a  great  mistake  on  the  part  of  the  South.  It 
led  the  people  to  see  slavery  in  its  worst  phase  and  did 
more  to  unify  the  North  against  the  institution  than  all 
the  sermons  and  speeches  ever  made. 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin.  —  One  of  the  strongest  factors  in 
molding  public  opinion  at  this  period  was  "  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,"  written  by  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe.  This 
novel,  which  came  out  within  two  or  three  years  after  the 
Compromise  measures  were  passed,  gave  a  picture  of  slave 
life  as  no  other  writing  had  ever  done.  The  book  attracted 
vast  numbers  of  readers  and  played  a  great  part  in  bringing 
about  a  political  revolution  in  1860. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  FRANKLIN  PIERCE 

While  the  agitation  over  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  was  at 
its  height,  the  people  were  again  called  to  the  quadrennial 
duty  of  electing  a  President. 

The  Presidential  Election  of  1852.  —  For  a  long  time  the 
political  sky  had  not  seemed  so  cloudy.  The  Whigs  were 
a  disorganized  mass  and  the  Democrats  were  in  little  better 
condition.  The  Democratic  convention,  which  met  in 
Baltimore  the  ist  of  June,  considered  several  aspirants  — 


308      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


James  Buchanan,  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  William  L.  Marcy 
—  all  prominent  leaders.  Not  being  able  to  choose  any  of 
these,  the  convention  named  a  "  dark  horse  "  in  the  person 
of  Franklin  Pierce  of  New  Hampshire.  Pierce  had  served 
in  both  houses  of  Congress,  and  had  been  a  general  in  the 

Mexican  War,  but 
was  not  a  broad 
national  statesman 
nor  a  leader  of  his 
party. 

The  Whigs  met 
a  little  later  in  the 
same  city.  The 
party  was  rent  from 
top  to  bottom  on 
account  of  the 
Compromise  meas 
ures.  The  South 
ern  wing  of  the 
party  demanded 
that  the  convention 
indorse  the  Fugi 
tive  Slave  Law  as 
the  Democrats  had 

done.  The  North  objected,  but  at  length  yielded,  and 
General  Winfield  Scott  was  nominated  for  President.  The 
Southern  Whigs,  however,  refused  to  give  a  hearty  sup 
port  to  Scott,  and  he  steadily  lost  ground  during  the  cam 
paign.  Pierce  was  elected  by  a  great  majority,  Scott 
carrying  but  four  states,  —  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Ken 
tucky,  and  Tennessee. 

Fall  of  the  Whig  Party.  — Twice  had  the  Whigs  elected 
a  soldier  President.     Both  had  died  in  office,  and  now  they 


FRANKLIN  PIERCE 


THE   OSTEND    MANIFESTO  309 

had  chosen  a  third,  greater  than  either,  but  failed  to  elect  him. 
The  times  had  changed.  The  Whig  party  was  tottering  and 
ready  to  crumble  to  pieces.  Within  this  same  year  that 
marked  the  defeat  of  Scott  both  the  great  leaders  of  the 
party — Henry  Clay  and  Daniel  Webster — passed  away. 
But  it  was  not  the  death  of  the  two  leaders  that  caused  the 
death  of  the  party.  It  was  rather  the  fact  that  there  were  no 
longer  great  issues  between  the  two  parties.  The  only  im 
portant  issue,  the  slavery  question,  was  sectional  and  not 
partisan.  As  the  two  great  parties,  therefore,  had  little  to 
contend  for,  except  spoils,  it  was  natural  that  one  of  them 
should  cease  to  be. 

The  Democratic  party  survived,  not  because  it  was 
better  than  the  Whig  party,  but  chiefly  because  it  escaped 
the  odium  of  the  Compromise  Measures  of  1850.  Many 
Democrats  had  supported  them  also,  but  they  were  intro 
duced  by  the  Whig  leader  and  signed  by  the  Whig  Presi 
dent  ;  it  was  that  party,  therefore,  that  had  to  answer  to 
the  people.  After  the  drastic  defeat  of  Scott  the  party 
steadily  declined  and  ere  the  coming  of  the  next  presi 
dential  contest  the  story  of  its  life  was  history. 

The  Ostend  Manifesto.  —  For  many  years,  almost  from 
the  founding  of  the  government,  there  was  an  equal  num 
ber  of  slave  and  free  states.  This  preserved  to  each  sec 
tion  equal  power  in  the  Senate,  and  the  South  was  anxious 
to  maintain  its  power  in  the  Senate  so  as  to  prevent  legis 
lation  unfriendly  to  slavery.  But  the  admission  of  Cali 
fornia  as  a  free  state  had  broken  the  balance.  Moreover, 
the  South  had  used  up  its  share  of  the  Louisiana  Pur 
chase,  while  in  the  Northwest  there  was  a  vast  territory 
yet  to  be  carved  into  free  states. 

In  order  to  regain  its  power,  therefore,  the  South 
turned  to  Cuba.  The  aim  was  to  annex  that  island  to 


310      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

the  United  States  and  to  make  one  or  more  slave  states 
of  it. 

There  were  Northern  statesmen  who  were  to  some  extent 
in  sympathy  with  the  South  and  were  not  unwilling  to  do 
the  slaveholders  a  favor  when  occasion  offered.  Among 
these  was  James  Buchanan  of  Pennsylvania,  then  minister 
to  England.  In  1854  he  and  our  ministers  to  France  and 
Spain  met  at  the  little  town  of  Ostend  in  Belgium  to  con 
sider  the  subject  of  annexing  Cuba.  They  issued  an 
address,  known  as  the  Ostend  Manifesto,  in  which  they 
urged  the  transfer  of  Cuba  to  the  United  States,  by  pur 
chase  if  possible,  by  force  if  necessary.  President  Pierce 
was  known  to  favor  annexation,  but  his  administration  did 
not  act  on  the  manifesto.1 

Perry  in  Japan.  —  Another  event  of  this  same  year, 
which  is  far  more  pleasing  to  remember,  was  the  expedi 
tion  of  Commodore  Matthew  C.  Perry  to  Japan.  Ten 
years  before  this  (1844)  China  had  opened  five  ports 
to  the  trade  of  the  United  States.  But  Japan  was 
closed  to  the  outside  world  till  the  coming  of  Perry, 
who  secured  a  favorable  commercial  treaty  with  the  Japa 
nese.  From  that  time  we  have  traded  freely  with  Japan ; 
and  that  country,  having  then  begun  to  introduce  the 
ideas  of  western  civilization,  has  since  risen  to  a  first-class 
power. 

The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill.  —  Franklin  Pierce  chose  Wil 
liam  L.  Marcy,  former  governor  of  New  York,  secretary 

1  In  1849  and  again  in  1851  Narcisco  Lopez  led  a  filibustering  expedition 
to  Cuba  for  the  purpose  of  rescuing  the  islands  from  Spain.  This  expedition 
was  supposed  to  be  in  the  interest  of  the  slave  states,  with  the  object  of  bring 
ing  Cuba  into  the  Union.  Lopez  was  taken  captive  and  put  to  death.  In  1854 
William  Walker  made  a  similar  expedition  to  Nicaragua,  seized  the  govern 
ment,  and  held  it  for  two  years.  At  length  Walker  also  was  overpowered  and 
executed, 


RECEPTION   OF   THE    BILL  311 

of  state,  and  Jefferson  Davis,  who  had  made  a  reputation 
in  the  Mexican  War,  as  secretary  of  war. 

In  his  inaugural  address  Pierce  had  promised  the  coun 
try  rest  from  the  distracting  slavery  question,  but  within 
a  year  came  the  fiercest  political  storm  that  the  country 
had  yet  experienced.  It  came  in  the  form  of  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  bill,  and  Stephen  A.  Douglas  of  Illinois  was  its 
author.  Douglas  was  chairman  of  the  Senate  committee 
on  territories.  In  January,  1854,  he  brought  a  report 
before  the  Senate  to  organize  the  northern  part  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase,  a  vast  region  known  as  Nebraska, 
extending  from  Missouri  northwestward  to  the  boundary 
of  Canada.  Douglas's  bill  divided  this  into  two  parts,  to 
be  called  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  The  one  thing  about  the 
bill  that  caused  great  excitement  and  awakened  fierce  oppo 
sition  was  the  provision  that  each  of  these  territories  should 
teclde  for  itself  whether  or  not  to  have  slavery  within  its 
'bounds.  All  this  territory  lay  north  of  thirty-six  thirty, 
the  Missouri  Compromise  line,  which  had  stood  like  a  wall 
for  thirty-four  years.1  The  bill  was  fought  at  every  step 
by  such  powerful  leaders  as  Seward  and  Salmon  P.  Chase, 
but  so  great  was  Douglas's  power  that  he  secured  its 
passage  through  both  houses. 

Reception  of  the  Bill.  -  -  The  Kansas-Nebraska  bill 
pleased  the  South ;  and  to  win  Southern  support  in  the 
next  presidential  election  was  probably  the  chief  object  of 
Douglas  in  introducing  it.  But  it  stunned  the  North. 
Thousands  of  people  in  the  North  had  fondly  believed 
that  whatever  the  aggressions  of  slavery,  it  could  never 
come  north  of  thirty-six  thirty ;  and  now  to  have  their 

1  The  original  bill  practically  set  aside  the  Missouri  Compromise,  but  before 
it  was  passed  an  amendment  was  added  which  actually  repealed  the  compro 
mise  of  1820. 


312      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

faith  shattered  at  a  blow  was  more  than  they  could  stand. 
Douglas  was  denounced  on  every  side.  He  had  been  a 
Democratic  idol  in  the  North  ;  but  now  he  had  made  a 
frightful  blunder  in  having  this  measure  enacted  into  law 
without  making  it  an  issue  in  any  campaign,  or  in  any  way 
consulting  the  wishes  of  his  masters,  the  people. 

Founding  of  the  Republican  Party.  — The  immediate  re 
sult  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Law  was  the  founding  of  a 


^t    120"  no"  100 

? 

<Sl/\°m/          "C  MINNESOTA 


new  political  party,  which  should  make  the  -  non-extension 
of  slavery  its  chief  corner  stone.1 

It  was  an  opportune  time  to  found  a  new  party. 
I.  There  were  thousands  of  Democrats,  known  as  anti- 
Nebraska  Democrats,  who  could  not  longer  remain  with 

1  The  pupil  should  notice  that  it  was  not  the  abolition  of  slavery,  but  the 
non-extension  of  slavery  in  the  territories,  that  became  the  basis  of  the  new 
party.  Abolition  did  not  become  a  tenet  of  the  party  until  the  Civil  War  had 
been  in  progress  for  nearly  two  years. 


FOUNDING  OF  THE   REPUBLICAN   PARTY         313 

the  party  to  which  they  and  their  fathers  had  adhered 
so  many  years.  2.  The  Northern  Whig  party  had  been 
shattered  to  fragments.  3.  The  Know-nothing  or  Ameri 
can  party,  coming  into  existence  in  the  late  forties,  had 
grown  with  wonderful  rapidity  and  had  gained  control  of 
several  states,  but  was  now  fast  declining.  Most  of  its 
members  were  ready  to  join  the  new  movement. 

In  the  spring  of  1854  meetings  were  held  in  various 
states,  notably  in  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Vermont,  and  Ohio, 
at  which  the  general  conclusion  was  that  a  new  national 
party  should  be  founded.  The  movement  was  spontaneous 
in  all  sections  of  the  North,  and  in  the  state  fall  elections 
of  1854,  most  of  the  Northern  states  were  carried  by  the 
anti-Nebraska  people.  These  elections  were  carried  under 
different  names,  as  Fusion,  anti-Nebraska,  and  the  like, 
the  name  Republican  not  coming  into  general  use  till 
1856. 

The  party  was  first  organized  at  Pittsburg  in  February, 
1856.  A  great  meeting  in  that  city,  in  which  all  the  free 
states  except  California  were  represented,  decided  that  a 
new  party  be  founded  on  the  principle  of  the  non-extension 
of  slavery,  and  that  its  name  be  Republican.  This  meet 
ing  then  called  a  national  convention  of  the  new  party 
to  be  held  in  Philadelphia  the  following  June  for  the  pur 
pose  of  making  nominations  for  the  presidential  election 
of  1856. 

POPULATION  ;  INVENTIONS  ;  LITERATURE 

The  population  in  1850  had  increased  to  a  little  more 
than  twenty-three  millions.  The  increase  in  ten  years,  which 
exceeded  four  millions,  was  greater  than  the  entire  popula 
tion  at  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution,  and  was  due  in 


314      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

part  to  a  great  influx  of  immigrants,  chiefly  German  and 
Irish.  Two  causes  led  to  this  unusual  immigration  —  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  California,  which  allured  men  to 
America,  and  the  political  oppression  in  Europe,  which 
drove  many  to  seek  a  home  where  they  could  enjoy  greater 
liberty.  Nearly  all  the  newcomers  settled  in  the  North. 
They  came  to  earn  their  living  by  labor,  and  refused 
to  settle  in  the  South,  where  labor  was  considered  de 
grading. 

Useful  Inventions.  —  Perhaps  no  country  in  history  ever 
before  produced  so  many  inventions  of  world-wide  impor 
tance  in  an  equal  period  as  did  America  in  the  twenty 
years  between  1830  and  1850. 

Among  the  most  important  were  the  mower  and  reaper, 
patented  by  Cyrus  McCormick  in  1831,  by  which  the  great 
wheat  farms  of  the  Northwest  were  made  possible ;  and 
the  sewing  machine,  invented  by  Elias  Howe  in  1846, 
by  which  woman  was  in  a  great  measure  set  free  from 
slavery  to  the  needle.  As  labor-saving  machines  these 
two  inventions  have  never  been  surpassed. 

The  telegraph,  noticed  in  a  preceding  chapter,  was 
patented  in  1837  by  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  but  did  not  come 
into  practical  operation  until  six  or  seven  years  later.  By 
this  wonderful  invention  the  time  element  in  the  trans 
mission  of  news  is  almost  eliminated.  An  illustration  will 
show  how  the  telegraph  has  made  the  world  akin.  I  have 
before  me  a  New  York  newspaper  dated  August  4,  1815. 
Its  chief  foreign  news  item  is  an  account  of  the  great  bat 
tle  between  the  French  and  the  allied  powers  at  Waterloo, 
in  which  Napoleo'n  was  overthrown.  This  was  the  first 
news  to  reach  America  of  that  famous  battle  which  had 
been  fought  on  the  i8th  of  June,  nearly  seven  weeks 
before,  and  several  weeks  were  yet  to  pass  before  it 


AMERICAN    LITERATURE  315 

could  reach  the  interior  of  the  country.  How  great  the 
contrast  with  the  following :  The  Coronation  of  King  Ed 
ward  VII  of  England  took  place  on  August  9,  1902,  at 
noon,  and  some  hours  before  noon  of  the  same  day  the 
account  of  the  event  was  read  on  the  streets  of  the  Ameri 
can  cities.1 

Hand  in  hand  with  the  telegraph  came  the  cylinder 
press,  first  operated  in  1847,  by  which,  with  all  its  improve 
ments  to  this  day,  the  news  received  from  the  wires  and 
put  in  type  is  printed  and  folded  in  newspaper  form  at  the 
rate  of  forty-eight  thousand  an  hour.2 

American  Literature. — The  period  preceding  the  war 
was,  thus  far,  the  golden  age  in  American  literature.  The 
older  writers,  as  Washington  Irving,  James  Fenimore 
Cooper,  Bryant,  Poe,  and  a  few  others,  had  produced  most 
of  their  best  work  before  1840,  but  much  of  the  best  in  our 
literature  came  within  the  following  decades. 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  the  most  perfect -master  of  style, 
wrote  "The  Scarlet  Letter,"  "The  Marble  Faun,"  and 
"The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables."  Emerson  wrote 
thoughtful  essays  on  many  subjects,  as  well  as  poetry  of  a 
high  order.  Longfellow  and  Whittier  wrote  many  poems 
that  are  now  well  known  to  all  classes  of  the  people. 
O.  W.  Holmes  and  James  R.  Lowell  were  poets  of  wide 
reputation,  and  also  prose  writers  of  considerable  note. 
Holmes's  "  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table,"  and  Lowell's 
literary  criticisms  are  among  the  classics. 

Among  the  minor  poets  the  most  notable  were  Fitz- 
Greene  Halleck,  the  author  of  "  Red  Jacket "  and  of 
"  Marco  Bozzaris,"  Joseph  Rodman  Drake,  Charles 
Sprague,  John  G.  Saxe,  and  Hannah  F.  Gould. 

1  The  teachei  should  explain  the  difference  in  time  between  the  two 
countries.  2  See  Elson's  History,  p.  617. 


3l6      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

The  leading  historians  of  the  time  were  George  Bancroft, 
William  H.  Prescott,  Francis  Parkman,  and  John  Lothrop 
Motley. 

SUMMARY 

Zachary  Taylor  was  elected  President  in  1848.  Soon  after  his  inau 
guration  the  question  of  slavery  or  no  slavery  in  the  lands  acquired 
from  Mexico  came  up  for  solution.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  Cali 
fornia  aided  in  making  California  a  free  state. 

In  1850  Henry  Clay  introduced  the  Compromise  measures,  the  most 
important  of  which  were  the  admission  of  California  as  a  free  state  and 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  The  Fugitive  Slave  Law  was  evaded  in  the 
North,  fleeing  slaves  being  aided  by  means  of  the  Underground  Rail 
road.  President  Taylor  died  in  1850,  and  Millard  Fillmore,  who  had 
been  elected  Vice  President,  succeeded  him. 

Franklin  Pierce  became  President  in  1853.  In  February,  1854, 
Stephen  A.  Douglas  introduced  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  repealing 
the  Missouri  Compromise.  The  bill  caused  great  consternation  in  the 
North,  and  one  of  its  results  was  the  founding  of  the  Republican  party 
(1854),  whose  chief  tenet  was  the  non-extension  of  slavery  in  the  ter 
ritories.  The  party  was  at  first  composed  chiefly  of  anti-Nebraska 
Democrats,  and  the  fragments  of  the  shattered  Whig  and  Know-nothing 
parties. 

NOTES 

Anecdotes  of  Clay.  —  No  man  in  public  life  in  America  ever  had  greater 
power  in  winning  personal  friends  than  Henry  Clay.  When  John  Randolph,  who 
had  been  Clay's  political  enemy  for  many  years,  and  with  whom  he  had  fought  a 
duel,  visited  Washington,  in  the  last  year  of  his  life,  he  called  on  Clay.  Clay 
received  him  very  kindly,  and  asked  about  his  health.  Randolph  replied,  "  I'm 
dying,  Clay,  I'm  dying."  —  "  Why,  then,"  asked  Clay,  "  do  you  venture  so  far  from 
home?  Why  did  you  come  here?" — "  To  see  you,"  answered  Randolph ;  "to 
see  you  and  have  one  more  talk  with  you." 

When  Clay  made  his  famous  farewell  address  to  the  Senate  in  1846,  he  brought 
tears  to  every  eye.  At  the  close  of  his  speech  as  he  was  passing  out  of  the  chamber, 
he  came  face  to  face  with  Calhoun.  They  had  been  enemies,  and  had  not  spoken 
for  five  years,  but  at  heart  each  really  loved  the  other.  Now  at  this  meeting,  all 
animosity  was  forgotten,  and  without  a  word  they  fell  into  each  other's  arms  and 
wept  silently.  On  one  occasion  when  Clay  was  making  a  tour  through  the  South, 
there  was  on  the  same  train  a  farmer,  an  old-school  Democrat,  who  was  invited 
to  step  into  the  next  car  and  meet  Clay.  "  No,"  he  answered,  "  I  would  not  be 


THE   CLAYTON-BULWER   TREATY  317 

seen  shaking  hands  with  Henry  Clay,  the  old  Whig."  He  was  informed  that  his 
idol,  Van  Buren,  had  often  done  so.  The  farmer  declared  that  he  did  not  believe 
it,  that  Van  Buren  would  never  do  such  a  mean  thing.  He  offered  to  make  a  bet 
that  he  was  right  and  agreed  to  let  Clay  himself  decide  the  bet.  They  came  to 
Clay's  seat  and  stated  the  case.  "  Yes,"  answered  Clay,  "  Van  Buren  is  a  good 
friend  of  mine,  and  he  made  me  a  visit  at  my  home  in  Lexington.  Setting  aside  his 
bad  politics,  he  is  an  agreeable  gentleman  and  a  right  clever  little  fellow."  The  man 
paid  his  bet,  and  went  away  muttering  that  if  that  was  the  way  the  great  men  acted, 
they  might  fight  their  own  battles  hereafter ;  he  didn't  believe  they  were  in  earnest 
anyhow,  only  pretended  to  be  so  as  to  set  others  by  the  ears.  —  See  Sargent's 
"  Public  Men  and  Events,"  Vol.  II,  p.  221. 

The  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty.  —  This  subject  has  been  relegated  to  a  note,  not 
because  it  is  of  minor  importance,  but  because  it  did  not  exactly  fit  in  our  slavery 
discussion.  John  M.  Clayton  was  secretary  of  state  under  President  Taylor.  He 
arranged  with  Henry  Lytton  Bulwer,  the  British  minister  at  Washington,  the  famous 
treaty  that  bears  the  name  of  both.  The  object  of  this  treaty  was  to  facilitate  and 
protect  the  construction  of  a  canal  at  Nicaragua  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans.  By  this  treaty  both  countries  pledged  themselves  never  to  obtain  exclusive 
control  over  said  proposed  canal,  nor  to  erect  fortifications  commanding  it,  nor  to 
colonize  or  exercise  dominion  over  any  portion  of  Central  America.  They  further 
agreed  to  protect  any  company  that  should  undertake  the  work,  and  to  facilitate  its 
construction,  and  guaranteed  the  neutrality  of  such  canal  when  completed.  But 
few  years  passed  after  the  consummation  of  the  treaty  before  it  became  the  object 
of  serious  discussion,  the  provisions  being  differently  construed  in  the  two  countries. 
At  length  the  canal  question  subsided,  and  for  many  years  it  attracted  little  atten 
tion.  Meantime  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  became  filled  with  people, 
the  relative  interests  of  the  two  countries  were  greatly  changed,  and  it  was  evident 
that  the  terms  of  the  treaty  were  disadvantageous  to  the  United  States.  After  many 
years'  negotiation,  the  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  was  abrogated  by  a  new  treaty  (1902), 
known  as  the  H ay- Pauncefote  Treaty,  by  which  the  United  States  secure  full  power 
to  construct  and  to  operate  the  proposed  canal. 


REFERENCES 

Same  as  before,  and  Von  Hoist,  •  Calhoun  "  ;  McDougall,  "  Fugitive 
Slaves  "  ;  Schurz,  "  Henry  Clay  " ;  Siebert,  "  Underground  Railroad  " ; 
Bancroft,  "  Seward." 


CHAPTER   XIX 
DRIFTING  TOWARD  WAR 

Presidential  Election  of  1856.  —  Franklin  Pierce  had 
hoped  for  a  renomination  at  the  hands  of  the  Demo 
crats,  but  his 
popularity  had 
waned  steadily 
throughout  his 
term.  Doug 
las  might  easily 
have  been  the 
choice  of  the 
party  had  he 
not  staked  too 
much  and  lost 
in  his  daring 
play  in  the  pres 
idential  game. 

The  most 
available  can 
didate  in  the 
party  was  James 
Buchanan  of 

Pennsylvania. 
JAMES  BUCHANAN  J 

Buchanan    had 

never,  in  his  long  public  life,  cast  a  vote  unfriendly  to 
Southern  interests,  and  was,  therefore,  acceptable  to  the 

318 


PRESIDENTIAL   ELECTION    OF    1856 


319 


South.     Moreover,  he  was  the  only  prominent  man  in  the 
party  whose  name  was  not  tainted  with  Kansas-Nebraskaism, 
and  the  North  seemed  ready  to  forgive  him  for  his  part  in 
the  Ostend  Manifesto.     He  carried  off  the  honors  of  the 
convention     with     little 
opposition,  and  John  C. 
Breckenridge    of     Ken 
tucky  was  placed  on  the 
ticket  for  second  place. 

The  Republican  con 
vention  met  in  Philadel 
phia,  as  called  by  the 
Pittsburg  meeting.  No 
party  was  ever  founded 
on  truer  motives  or  led 
by  more  unselfish  men 
than  was  this  new-born 
party.  And  yet  this 
convention  made  an  un 
accountable  blunder  in 
the  selection  of  a  candi 
date  for  President. 

Seward  was  the  leader  of  Northern  thought,  and  had  been 
since  the  passing  of  Webster,  but  he  had  not  identified 
himself  with  the  new  party  at  its  founding  and  did  not 
seek  the  nomination.  Other  leaders,  as  Chase  and  Justice 
McLean  of  the  Supreme  Court,  were  set  aside,  and,  on  the 
first  ballot,  the  choice  fell  on  John  C.  Fremont  of  California. 
Fremont  was  known  as  a  pioneer  and  a  mountain  ex 
plorer  of  the  far  West,  and  for  hardly  anything  else. 
As  the  campaign  progressed  charges  of  corruption  were 
brought  against  him.  Many  Republicans  regretted  the 
choice  of  the  party.  Buchanan  was  considered  a  safe 


JOHN  C.  FREMONT 


320      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

man  by  all  classes  and  was  elected,  having  received  the 
votes  of  all  the  Southern  states  except  Maryland l  and  of 
five  states  in  the  North. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  BUCHANAN 

The  Dred  Scott  Decision.  —  Nearly  every  great  question 
of  the  time  bore  in  some  way  on  slavery,  and  not  the  least 
among  them  was  the  Dred  Scott  Decision  of  1857. 

Dred  Scott  was  the  slave  of  Dr.  Emerson,  an  army 
surgeon.  The  doctor  was  stationed  for  a  time  in  Illinois 
and  later  at  Fort  Snelling,  Minnesota,  both  free  territory. 
Dred  Scott,  who  had  been  with  his  master  at  these  points, 
sued  for  his  freedom,  after  their  return  to  Missouri,  on 
the  ground  that  he  had  been  held  in  slavery  on  free  ter 
ritory.  The  case  was  finally  decided  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States.  A  majority  of  the  justices 
decided  against  Scott,  and  he  remained  in  slavery.2 

The  court  not  only  decided  on  the  simple  case  of  Dred 
Scott ;  it  went  out  of  its  way  to  pronounce  the  Missouri 
Compromise  unconstitutional.  Chief  Justice  Taney  de 
clared  that  free  negroes  could  not  become  citizens,  and 
that  as  slaves  were  property  recognized  by  the  Constitu 
tion,  no  power,  not  even  Congress,  could  prohibit  slavery 
in  the  territories. 

The  Republican  party,  founded  on  the  principle  of  non- 
extension  of  slavery,  could  not  and  did  not  accept  such  a 
doctrine  as  final. 

The  Dred  Scott  decision,  like  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill, 

1  The  remnants  of  the  old  Whig  and  Know-nothing  parties  had  nominated 
ex-President  Fillmore,  who  carried  the  solitary  state  of  Maryland  in  the  elec 
tion. 

2  Dred  Scott  was  soon  afterward  set  free  by  his  master. 


THE    STRUGGLE    FOR   KANSAS  321 

settled  nothing.  It  only  intensified  the  feelings  of  the 
people  and  hastened  the  crisis. 

The  Struggle  for  Kansas.  —  The  Kansas-Nebraska  bill 
was  intended,  as  its  author  professed,  to  give  popular  sov 
ereignty,  on  the  slavery  question,  to  the  territories ;  that 
is,  Congress  should  be  relieved  from  the  troublesome  sub 
ject  ;  the  people  of  the  territories  should  decide  for  them 
selves.  In  one  instance  only  was  this  law  put  into  operation 
—  in  Kansas  —  and  a  sorry  exhibition  it  was. 

While  Pierce  was  President,  and  soon  after  the  law  had 
opened  the  territory  of  the  Northwest  to  slavery,  the  peo 
ple  of  Missouri  began  to  cross  into  Kansas  with  the  intent 
of  making  it  a  slave  state.  The  people  of  the  North  then 
determined  to  outdo  the  Missourians  by  migrating  in 
greater  numbers,  and  hundreds,  especially  from  New  Eng 
land,  left  their  homes  to  become  settlers  on  the  plains  of 
Kansas. 

Soon  there  was  a  clash ;  there  was  border  warfare  and 
bloodshed.  No  state  in  the  Union,  not  even  those  bathed 
in  the  blood  of  early  Indian  wars,  surpassed  Kansas  in  the 
fierce  contests  of  its  early  years. 

The  attitude  of  Buchanan  was  eagerly  awaited  on  his 
becoming  President.  The  contest  in  Kansas  had  been 
raging  for  nearly  three  years.  Many  had  been  killed ; 
elections  had  been  carried  by  violence  and  fraud,  and  rival 
governments  had  been  set  up.  One  governor  after  another 
had  been  sent  to  the  territory,  only  to  find  a  political  grave. 

President  Buchanan  promised  justice  to  both  sides  and 
doubtless  meant  what  he  said.  But  from  some  cause  he 
later  threw  the  weight  of  the  administration  against  the 
party  that  strove  for  free  Kansas.  The  proslavery  party 
elected  a  legislature  that  framed  a  constitution,  known  as 
the  Lecompton  constitution,  making  Kansas  a  slave  state ; 


322       SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

but  they  did  not  submit  the  constitution  to  a  fair  vote  of 
the  people.  This  constitution  was  sent  to  Washington  and 
its  framers  sought  the  admission  of  Kansas  into  the  Union 
as  a  slave  state. 

Attitude  of  Douglas.  —  Stephen  A.  Douglas  had  thrown 
the  country  into  turmoil  by  his  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  but  had 
not  meant  to  bring  injury  to  the  land.  He  was  a  just  man 
at  heart.  Hearing  that  Buchanan  was  about  to  recommend 
the  admission  of  Kansas  under  the  Lecompton  constitution, 
he  declared  that  he  would  oppose  the  measure  unless  the 
constitution  was  first  submitted  to  an  honest  vote  of  the 
people  of  Kansas.  It  was  believed  that,  at  this  time,  the 
free-state  people  were  in  a  large  majority  in  the  territory. 

The  President  was  displeased  at  the  attitude  of  Douglas, 
and  the  two  were  estranged,  never  to  be  reconciled.  Bu 
chanan,  in  February,  1858,  recommended  that  Kansas  be 
admitted  as  a  slave  state  under  the  Lecompton  constitu 
tion.  Douglas  opposed  the  bill  in  Congress  and  it  was 
lost.  Kansas  entered  the  Union  three  years  later  as  a 
free  state.,  Douglas,  by  his  noble  stand  for  justice  to  the 
people  of  Kansas,  won  back  much  of  the  popularity  in  the 
North  that  he  had  lost  a  few  years  before. 

Assault  upon  Sumner.  —  While  Kansas  was  in  the  throes 
of  civil  war,  there  were  exciting  times  in  Congress.  The 
debates  were  fierce  and  acrimonious.  In  1856  when  Senator 
Charles  Sumner  was  making  a  notable  speech  on  "  The 
Crime  against  Kansas,"  he  went  out  of  his  way  to  abuse 
certain  senators  whom  he  did  not  like,  especially  Senator 
Butler  of  South  Carolina.  Two  days  later  Preston  Brooks, 
a  member  of  the  House  and  a  relative  of  Butler,  assaulted 
Mr.  Sumner  with  a  cane,  beating  him  into  insensibility. 
Sumner  was  so  badly  injured  that  he  did  not  fully  recover 
his  health  for  four  years.  The  fact  that  Brooks  was 


JOHN   BROWN   RAID 


323 


applauded  as  a  hero  throughout  the  South  and  was  de 
nounced  everywhere  in  the  North  as  a  coward  revealed 
the  ever  widening  gulf  between  the  North  and  the  South. 
Still  more  was  this  gulf  revealed  by  the  attitude  of  the  two 


JOHN  BROWN 

sections  toward  an  exciting  occurrence  of  1859,  known  as 
the 

John  Brown  Raid.  —  John  Brown  was  a  fanatical  anti- 
slavery  worker.  He  believed  that  slavery  should  be  abol 
ished  by  violence  and  was  impractical  enough  to  attempt 
the  task  almost  single-handed.  Brown  was  in  the  midst 
of  the  border  warfare  in  Kansas,  after  which  he  went  east 


324      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

and  began  the  undertaking  for  which  he  is  remembered  in 
history. 

Collecting  about  twenty  men  as  companions,  several 
of  whom  were  his  own  sons,  Brown  made  a  night  attack 
on  Harper's  Ferry,  Virginia,  overpowered  the  guard,  and 
took  possession  of  the  United  States  arsenal  of  that  place. 
His  object  was  to  rouse  the  slaves  to  insurrection,  arm 
them  from  the  government  stores,  and  lead  them  to  free 
dom  by  force.  The  news  of  the  attack  was  greatly  ex 
aggerated  when  first  flashed  over  the  country,  and  it  caused 
intense  excitement. 

Brown  had  indeed  seized  the  arsenal,  but  the  slaves  had 
not  risen  against  their  masters  as  he  believed  they  would. 
Troops  were  sent  to  capture  Brown,  but  he  and  his  little 
band  fought  fiercely,  thousands  of  shots  being  exchanged. 
Several  of  his  party,  including  two  of  his  sons,  were 
killed.  John  Brown  was  captured,  was  tried  in  the  Vir 
ginia  courts  for  murder,  and  was  condemned  and  executed. 

Many  at  the  North  applauded  Brown  as  a  hero  and  a 
martyr.  At  the  South  he  was  denounced  as  the  blackest 
of  criminals.  The  truth  lay  between  the  two.  Brown 
was  a  sincere  man  at  heart  and  his  motives  no  doubt  were 
good,  but  his  judgment  was  sadly  distorted.  On  the  sub 
ject  of  slavery  he  was  probably  insane. 

LINCOLN-DOUGLAS  DEBATES;    ELECTION  OF  1860 

Stephen  A.  Douglas,  as  we  have  noticed,  had  been  for 
years  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  figures  in  public  life. 
His  second  term  in  the  Senate  was  drawing  to  a  close  and 
the  legislature  to  be  elected  in  Illinois  in  1858  must  choose 
his  successor.  His  break  with  President  Buchanan  led 
some  of  the  leading  Republicans  of  the  East  to  advocate 


SLAVERY   IN   THE   TERRITORIES  325 

his  reelection,  in  the  hope  that  it  would  redound  to  Re 
publican  advantage.  But  the  Republicans  of  Illinois 
refused  to  support  him.  They  produced  their  own 
candidate  in  the  person  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  This  action 
brought  on  the  most  famous  joint  debate  in  American 
annals. 

These  two  men  had  much  in  common.  Both  had  begun 
life  without  friends,  influence,  or  money  ;  both  were  honest, 
courteous,  companionable,  and  ambitious  to  rise  in  public 
life.  They  had  served  together  in  the  Illinois  legislature, 
and  had  long  been  personal  though  never  political  friends. 
But  the  contrast  is  still  more  notable.  Douglas  was  low  in 
stature,  graceful  and  polished  in  manners  ;  Lincoln  was 
tall,  rather  awkward,  and  uncultured.  Douglas  had  a  deep, 
musical  voice  and  every  grace  of  the  finished  orator,  but 
his  logic  was  faulty ;  Lincoln  was  wanting  in  the  graces  of 
the  polished  orator,  but  his  logic  was  keen,  incisive,  and 
unanswerable. 

These  two  rival  candidates  for  the  Senate  met  in  seven 
different  Illinois  towns,  and  spoke  from  the  same  platform 
to  the  same  people.1  It  was  Lincoln  who  made  the  chal 
lenge.  It  was  a  daring  thing  to  do,  for  Douglas  was  the 
prince  of  public  speakers,  the  readiest  debater  in  the  United 
States  Senate.  But  Lincoln  had  little  to  lose.  He  was 
scarcely  known  beyond  the  bounds  of  Illinois,  while  the 
fame  of  Douglas  was  national.  There  was  but  one  great 
question  to  be  discussed  and  that  was 

Slavery  in  the  Territories.  —  As  the  debates  progressed 
the  speakers  propounded  questions  to  each  other,  to  be 
answered  publicly.  Douglas  began  this  and  by  so  doing 
set  a  trap  for  himself  from  which  there  was  no  escape. 
Lincoln  asked  this  simple  question  :  "  Can  the  people  of 

xThe  debate  began  August  24,  and  ended  October  15. 


326      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED    STATES 

a  United  States  territory,  in  any  lawful  way,  against  the  wish 
of  any  citizen  of  the  United  States,  exclude  slavery  from 
its  limits,  prior  to  the  formation  of  a  state  constitution  ? " 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN 


Here  it  must  be  explained  that  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill 
was  understood  differently  by  the  Northern  and  Southern 
Democrats.  Those  of  the  North  declared  that  the  people 


THE  DEMOCRATIC   CONVENTION  327 

of  a  territory  had  a  right  to  decide  whether  or  not  slavery 
should  exist  within  the  bounds  of  the  territory;  at  the 
South  it  was  declared  that  no  such  right  existed,  that  Con 
gress  must  protect  slavery  in  a  territory  until  it  was  ready 
to  become  a  state. 

Douglas  was  again  an  aspirant  for  the  presidency,  and  if 
he  answered  this  question  in  accordance  with  the  Northern 
view,  he  would  offend  the  South.  If  he  took  the  other  side, 
he  would  make  many  enemies  in  the  North.  Douglas  an 
swered  in  accordance  with  the  Northern  view.  He  won  the 
senatorship,  but  offended  the  South,  and  two  years  later  that 
section  refused  to  support  him  as  a  presidential  candidate. 

ELECTION  OF  1860 

The  Democratic  Convention.  —  There  was  deep  and 
deadly  strife  between  the  two  great  sections  of  the  Demo 
cratic  party  at  the  approach  of  this  momentous  election. 
The  convention  met  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  Douglas 
had  re-won  his  popularity  in  the  North,  and  was  the  one  and 
only  choice  of  that  section ;  but  he  had  alienated  the  South 
chiefly  by  his  answer  to  Lincoln's  incisive  question  in 
Illinois.  The  South  not  only  refused  to  accept  Douglas ; 
it  also  demanded  that  the  platform  pronounce  for  the 
Southern  view  concerning  slavery  in  the  territories.  To 
this  the  North  could  not  agree,  and  the  convention  broke 
up  in  disorder,  to  meet  some  weeks  later  in  Baltimore. 
When  the  convention  reassembled  the  two  factions  could 
agree  no  better,  and  they  parted  company.  The  Northern 
delegates  nominated  Douglas,  and  those  from  the  South, 
having  withdrawn  from  the  convention,  nominated  John 
C.  Breckenridge  of  Kentucky,  who  was  at  the  time  Vice 
President.  Thus,  the  last  bond  of  union  between  the  North 
and  the  South  —  the  Democratic  party  —  was  severed. 


328      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


The  Republican  Convention  met  in  Chicago  in  June. 
The  two  most  conspicuous  candidates  for  the  nomination 
were  William  H.  Seward  of  New  York  and  Abraham  Lincoln 
of  Illinois.  On  the  third  ballot  Lincoln  was  nominated  and 
Hannibal  Hamlin  of  Maine  was  chosen  for  second  place. 

The  Campaign  was  one  of  vast  importance  and  the  one 
great  issue  was  the  question  of  slavery  in  the  territories. 


ELECTION  CHART,  1860 

On  this   question    the  respective    positions   of  the    three 
parties  were  as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  Republicans  took  the  ground  that  slavery  was 
an  evil,  and  Congress  should  prohibit  it  in  the  territories. 

2.  The  Breckenridge  Democrats  declared  that,  as  slaves 
were  property  recognized  by  the   Constitution,  Congress 
was  bound  to  protect  slavery  in  the  territories. 

3.  The  Douglas  Democrats  took  the  middle  ground,  that 


THE   RIGHT    OF    A   STATE   TO    SECEDE  329 

the  people  of  a  territory  should  decide  about  slavery  within 
its  bounds,  and  that  Congress  should  neither  protect  nor 
prohibit  it. 

A  fourth  party  in  the  field  nominated  John  Bell  for 
President  and  Edward  Everett  for  Vice  President.  This 
party  ignored  the  great  issue  of  the  time,  and  pronounced 
for  "  The  Constitution,  the  Union,  and  the  enforcement  of 
the  laws." 

The  election  came  on  November  6,  and  Lincoln  carried 
all  the  Northern  states,  except  New  Jersey,  which  gave 
him  but  four  of  her  seven  electoral  votes.  He  received 
one  hundred  and  eighty  votes  in  the  electoral  college,  while 
one  hundred  and  fifty-two  were  enough  to  elect.  No  elec 
tion  since  that  of  Jefferson  in  1800  had  meant  so  much  to 
the  future  of  the  country.  It  signified  that  the  people 
of  the  nation  had  pronounced  slavery  an  evil,  and  that  it 
should  encroach  no  farther  on  free  soil. 

SECESSION 

During  the  campaign  threats  of  secession  from  the 
Union,  in  case  of  Lincoln's  election,  were  freely  made  in 
the  South.  Such  threats  had  often  been  made  before  at  the 
North  as  well  as  the  South,  and  few  took  them  seriously. 
But  in  this  case  the  South  was  in  deep,  deadly  earnest; 
and  as  soon  as  the  election  of  Lincoln  was  known,  prepara 
tions  were  made  to  take  the  fatal  step. 

The  right  of  a  state  to  secede  of  its  own  motion  was 
generally  believed  in  at  the  South  and  this  right  was  based 
on  the  ground  that  the  states  were  sovereign  and  that  each 
had  the  legal  power  to  withdraw  at  will  from  the  com 
pact  by  which  the  Union  had  been  formed. 

It  was  not  a  belief  in  state  rights  or  state  sovereignty, 
however,  that  brought  about  secession  and  war;  it  was 


330      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

slavery  and  nothing  else.  The  great  events  that  pointed 
toward  war  —  the  Kansas-Nebraska  agitation,  the  Dred 
Scott  decision,  the  John  Brown  raid,  and  the  like  —  were 
all  slavery  questions. 

Secession  of  South  Carolina.  —  The  first  of  the  South 
ern  states  to  take  the  momentous  step  was  South  Carolina. 
A  convention  composed  of  the  best  men  of  the  state  met 
at  Charleston  and  decided  that  the  union  between  that  state 
and  the  United  States  of  America  was  dissolved.  It  then 
issued  an  address  to  the  other  slave  states  urging  them  to 
leave  the  Union  and  join  with  her  in  forming  a  Southern 
Confederacy.  The  people  of  the  state  approved  the  action 
of  the  convention  almost  unanimously,  and  there  is  not  a 
doubt  of  their  sincerity.  They  believed  that  they  would 
be  better  off  out  of  the  Union  than  in  it,  and  they  believed 
in  the  right  of  secession. 

By  the  first  of  February,  1861,  six  other  states,  follow 
ing  the  lead  of  South  Carolina,  had  seceded  from  the 
Union.  These  were  Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia, 
Louisiana,  and  Texas. 

The  Confederate  States  of  America ;  Buchanan's  Attitude. 
-  These  seven  seceding  states,  which  comprised  the  great 
cotton  belt  of  the  South,  met  in  convention  at  Montgomery, 
Alabama,  on  February  4,  and  formed  a  government  which 
they  styled  the  Confederate  States  of  America.  In  the 
following  months  four  other  states  seceded  and  joined  the 
Confederacy.  These  were  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  and  Arkansas.  The  capital  of  the  Confederacy 
was  later  moved  to  Richmond,  Virginia. 

For  President  the  South  chose  Jefferson  Davis,  who  had 
been  in  the  Mexican  War,  in  the  United  States  Senate, 
and  in  the  Cabinet  of  Pierce.  Alexander  H.  Stephens 
was  chosen  Vice  President.  The  election  of  both  was  at 


THE   CONFEDERATE   STATES   OF  AMERICA       331 

first  provisional,  but  at  a  later  election  both  were  chosen 

for  a  full  term  of  six  years.     A  constitution  modeled  to 

some  extent  after  that 

of    the    United    States 

was     adopted    by    the 

Confederacy. 

President  Buchanan 
was  at  loss  to  know  how 
to  deal  with  this  great 
question.  In  a  message 
he  declared  that  neither 
the  President  nor  Con 
gress  had  the  power  to 
prevent  secession.  But 
a  few  weeks  later  (Janu 
ary  8,  i86i)  he  wrote 
another  message  in 
which  he  declared  that 
it  was  the  duty  of  the 
President  to  collect  the 
revenue  and  to  protect  JEFFERSON  DAVIS 

public    property  in  the 

seceded  states,  and  to  use  force  in  so  doing  if  necessary. 
He  sent  the  Star  of  the  West,  a  small  vessel,  to  relieve  the 
garrison  at  Fort  Sumter  in  Charleston  Harbor,  but  the 
vessel  was  fired  on  and  failed  to  make  a  landing. 

In  the  North  there  was  great  excitement  among  the 
people  on  account  of  secession  in  the  South,  and  thousands 
of  men  regretted  having  voted  for  Lincoln.  They  preferred 
the  old  regime  to  disunion  or  civil  war. 

A  Peace  Congress,  called  by  Virginia  and  presided  over 
by  former  President  John  Tyler,  met  in  Washington  in 
February,  but  its  efforts  came  to  nothing. 


332      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

In  Congress  both  House  and  Senate  labored  most  of  the. 
winter  to  avert  the  impending  calamity.  An  amendment 
to  the  Constitution  was  proposed  and  it  passed  both  houses 
but  failed  of  ratification  by  the  requisite  number  of  states. 
It  forbade  Congress  or  the  people  to  molest  slavery  in 
future  in  any  state  where  it  existed,  without  the  consent 
of  that  state.  Thus  it  would  have  made  slavery  perpetual 
by  intrenching  it  in  the  organic  law  of  the  land.  The  ob 
ject  was  to  conciliate  the  South. 

But  the  seceding  states  refused  to  return  and  their 
representatives  gradually  withdrew  from  Congress.  Forts 
and  other  public  property  in  the  South  to  the  value  of 
$30,000,000  were  taken  possession  of  by  the  Confederate 
government.  Every  index  pointed  to  permanent  disunion 
or  dreadful  civil  war  and  the  lovers  of  peace  looked  with 
dismay  on  the  rushing  torrent  of  events. 

Inauguration  of  Lincoln.  —  The  time  was  at  hand  for  the 
installation  of  the  new  President.  Mr.  Lincoln  entered 
the  capital  by  night  and  by  stealth  for  fear  of  the  assassin's 
bullet.  On  the  4th  of  March  he  stood  before  a  vast 
multitude  and  outlined  the  policy  of  the  nation.  Of  all 
men  in  the  country  he  alone  must  decide  if  there  should 
be  permanent  disunion  or  war.  Never  before  and  never 
since  has  a  word  fallen  from  a  President's  lips  so  eagerly 
awaited  by  the  millions  as  was  this  inaugural  address  of 
Abraham  Lincoln. 

The  address  was  very  moderate  in  its  tone.  The  speaker 
declared  that  he  had  no  purpose  to  interfere  with  slavery 
where  it  existed,  that  he  was  willing  to  abide  by  the  Fugi 
tive  Slave  Law,  and  even  gave  his  approval  of  the  unchange 
able  amendment  to  the  Constitution  making  slavery 
perpetual  in  the  United  States. 

At  the  same  time  he  declared  that  no  state  could  lawfully 


FORT   SUMTER  333 

secede  from  the  Union,  that  he  would  enforce  the  laws  in 
all  the  states,  and  that  the  Union  would  defend  and  main 
tain  itself.  The  meaning  of  this  was  as  clear  as  daylight: 
if  the  seceding  states  refused  to  return,  there  would  be  war. 
"  The  ills  you  fly  from,"  said  the  speaker,  "  have  no  exist 
ence.  In  your  hands  .  .  .  and  not  in  mine,  is  the  mo 
mentous  issue  of  civil  war.  .  .  You  can  have  no  oath 
registered  in  heaven  to  destroy  this  government ;  while  I 
shall  have  the  most  solemn  one  to  preserve,  protect,  and 
defend  it." 

The  two  strongest  men  in  Lincoln's  first  Cabinet  were 
William  H.  Seward,  secretary  of  state,  and  Salmon  P.  Chase 
of  Ohio,  secretary  of  the  treasury.  The  Cabinet  was  not 
harmonious  on  the  great  question  before  the  country,  and 
it  is  a  notable  fact  that  no  member  of  the  Cabinet  had  yet 
learned  to  trust  the  judgment  of  this  untutored  President 
from  the  West.  They  all  had  yet  to  learn  that  Lincoln 
was  their  master. 

Fort  Sumter.  —  For  some  weeks  after  the  inauguration 
Mr.  Lincoln  followed  the  policy  of  Buchanan ;  he  waited. 
It  was  clear  now  that  there  would  be  war,  and  each  side 
waited  for  the  other  to  strike  the  first  blow.  The  garrison 
at  Fort  Sumter,  in  Charleston  Harbor,  commanded  by 
Major  Robert  Anderson,  was  running  short  of  provisions, 
and  when  President  Lincoln  decided  to  supply  the  fort, 
the  Confederates  determined  to  fire  on  it  and  capture  it. 

On  the  morning  of  April  12,  1861,  General  P.  G.  T. 
Beauregard,  the  Confederate  commander  at  Charleston, 
sent  word  to  Major  Anderson  that  he  would  open  fire  in 
an  hour,  and  at  the  appointed  moment  a  shrieking  shell 
announced  to  the  world  that  the  day  of  compromise  was 
past  and  that  the  most  stupendous  tragedy  in  modern 
history  was  begun. 


334      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Immediately  fifty  cannon  poured  their  shot  into  the 
doomed  fort.  The  fire  was  returned  with  vigor;  but  at 
length  the  air  became  so  stifling  that  the  men  in  the  fort 
lay  on  their  faces  and  breathed  through  wet  cloths. 
Thirty-four  hours  the  bombardment  continued,  without 
loss  of  life,  when  the  fort  surrendered  and  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Confederacy. 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  FORT  SUMTER 

The  effect  of  the  firing  on  Fort  Sumter  was  magical 
throughout  the  North.  Millions  who  had  hesitated  were 
now  ready  to  decide  for  the  Union.  Two  days  after  the 
fall  of  Sumter  President  Lincoln  issued  a  call  for  seventy- 
five  thousand  men  and  the  response  was  hearty  from 
every  part  of  the  free  states.  Men  forgot  their  party 
differences  and  rushed  to  arms  to  save  the  Union.  In  the 
South  the  effect  of  the  fall  of  Sumter  was  similar  to  that  in 


SUMMARY  335 

the  North.  The  Southern  people  saw  by  Lincoln's  call  to 
arms  that  he  meant  to  coerce  the  seceding  states.  This 
awakened  them  to  resistance,  and  it  was  in  the  following 
weeks  that  the  last  four  of  the  Confederate  states  seceded 
from  the  Union  — Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Arkansas,  and 
Tennessee.  The  people  of  Virginia  now  seized  the  United 
States  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry  and  the  Navy  Yard  near 
Norfolk,  the  value  of  which  was  $10,000,000.  The  seizures 
of  the  Confederacy  now  reached  the  grand  total  of 
$40,000,000. 

SUMMARY 

In  the  election  of  1856  James  Buchanan  defeated  John  C.  Fre'mont, 
the  first  Republican  candidate  for  President. 

The  administration  of  Buchanan  is  especially  remembered  for  the 
Dred  Scott  decision,  the  John  Brown  raid,  the  Lincoln-Douglas  debates, 
and  the  troubles  in  Kansas. 

The  Dred  Scott  decision,  by  Chief  Justice  Taney,  left  Dred  Scott  in 
slavery  and  pronounced  the  Missouri  Compromise  unconstitutional, 
declaring  also  that  free  negroes  could  not  become  citizens,  and  that 
Congress  had  no  power  to  prohibit  slavery  in  the  territories. 

The  struggle  in  Kansas  between  the  antislavery  and  proslavery 
parties  continued  for  some  years  and  was  marked  by  much  violence. 

John  Brown  made  an  attack  on  Harper's  Ferry  (1859),  seized  the 
arsenal,  but  was  captured  and  executed. 

The  Lincoln-Douglas  debates  (1858)  attracted  wide  attention. 
Douglas  was  reflected  to  the  Senate. 

The  election  of  1860  was  one  of  great  importance.  The  Democratic 
party  split  in  twain.  The  Northern  Democrats  nominated  Douglas,  and 
the  Southern  nominated  John  C.  Breckenridge.  The  chief  issue  was 
slavery  in  the  territories.  Lincoln  was  elected  by  a  plurality  of  the 
popular  vote  and  a  majority  in  the  electoral  college. 

South  Carolina  then  seceded  (December  20, 1860),  and  was  followed 
by  six  other  states  by  February  i,  1861.  These  were  joined  in  the 
spring  by  four  more  states.  The  seceding  states  then  set  up  a  govern- 
ment_and  called  it  The  Confederate  States  of  America,  elected  Jefferson 
Davis  President,  and  adopted  a  Constitution. 

President  Buchanan  refrained  from  using  force  against  the  seceding 


336      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

states.  Abraham  Lincoln,  inaugurated  on  March  4,  followed  Buchan 
an's  policy  until  the  firing  on  Fort  Sumter  (April  12),  after  which  he 
called  for  seventy-five  thousand  men  to  put  down  the  insurrection. 

NOTE 

Boyhood  of  Lincoln.  —  In  a  miserable  log  hut  near  Hodgensville,  Kentucky, 
lived  Thomas  Lincoln  and  his  wife  Nancy.  In  this  hovel,  on  the  I2th  of  February, 
1809,  their  second  child,  a  boy,  was  born  and  they  called  him  Abraham,  after  his 
grandfather,  a  frontiersman  who  had  been  a  friend  of  Daniel  Boone  and  who  was 
killed  by  the  Indians  in  1784.  Thomas  Lincoln  could  not  read,  but  his  wife  had 
some  education,  and  before  Abraham  was  five  years  old  she  had  taught  him  to  read. 
When  the  boy  was  eight  years  old  the  family  moved  to  Spencer  County,  Indiana, 
and  took  up  their  abode  in  the  wilderness.  The  first  winter  was  spent  in  a  shed 
made  of  poles  and  covered  with  leaves  and  branches  of  trees.  Meantime  Mr. 
Lincoln  and  Abraham  built  a  log  house  and  cleared  a  small  piece  of  land.  The 
exposure  had  broken  the  health  of  Mrs.  Lincoln  and  soon  after  they  had  moved 
into  the  new  house  there  came  to  Abraham  Lincoln  the  greatest  sorrow  that  can 
come  into  a  boy's  life  —  the  death  of  his  mother.  A  few  years  later  Mr.  Lincoln 
married  a  widow  with  several  children  and  the  double  family  spent  ten  years  in  the 
log  house.  The  neighbors  joined  together  and  built  a  little  log  schoolhouse  and 
in  this  Abraham  attended  school  a  month  or  two  every  winter  —  about  ten  months 
in  all. 

He  was  a  diligent  reader  when  he  could  get  books.  Most  of  his  reading  was 
from  the  Bible  and  Pilgrim's  Progress,  until  one  day  when  he  was  about  fourteen 
he  borrowed  a  Life  of  Washington  from  a  neighbor.  He  walked  slowly  and  read 
all  the  way  home,  then  he  sat  by  a  log  fire  and  read  till  bedtime.  On  going  to  bed 
he  took  the  book  with  him  and  read  by  the  light  of  a  piece  of  candle  till  it  was 
burned  out,  after  which  he  put  the  book  in  a  crevice  in  the  wall.  A  rainstorm  came 
up  that  night  and  the  book  was  wet  through  and  through.  Sadly  he  carried  it 
to  the  owner  and  told  of  the  matter,  offering  to  pay  for  the  book  in  labor. 
The  neighbor  said:  "  Well,  Abe,  I  won't  be  hard  on  you;  if  you'll  shuck  corn  for 
me  three  days,  you  may  have  the  book."  "Abe  "was  delighted  at  the  prospect 
of  owning  a  book  even  though  a  soiled  one,  and  three  days  later  it  was  paid  for. 
He  went  to  hear  every  preacher  or  stump  speaker  that  came  to  the  town  of  Gentry- 
ville,  near  which  he  lived.  On  one  occasion  he  walked  fifteen  miles  to  hear  a  trial 
in  court.  When  one  of  the  lawyers  finished  his  speech,  this  tall,  barefoot  boy,  in 
his  buckskin  breeches,  all  too  short,  and  his  squirrel-skin  cap  in  his  hand,  walked 
across  the  court  room  to  shake  hands  with  the  lawyer  and  say  that  the  speech  was 
the  best  he  had  ever  heard.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  Lincoln  was  full  grown.  He 
was  six  feet  four  inches  in  height.  He  could  run  faster  and  jump  farther  than 
any  of  his  companions.  When  Lincoln  was  twenty-one,  the  family  moved  to  Illinois, 
making  the  journey  in  a  huge  wagon  drawn  by  four  yoke  of  oxen.  In  Illinois 
Lincoln  was  engaged  in  various  pursuits.  At  different  times  he  was  farmer,  rail- 
splitter,  surveyor,  storekeeper,  boatman,  and  village  postmaster.  Not  until  he  was 
nearly  thirty  years  old  did  he  become  a  lawyer. 


CHAPTER   XX 
THE  CIVIL  WAR  TO  GETTYSBURG 

After  the  fall  of  Fort  Sumter  it  was  plain  to  the  world 
that  there  would  be  war  between  the  two  great  sections  of 
our  country.  For  many  years  there  had  been  ceaseless 
quarreling  between  them  ;  now  there  was  to  be  an  appeal 
to  the  sword,  with  all  its  baleful  results. 

Comparison  between  the  North  and  the  South. — The 
North,  including  the  border  slave  states,  which  did  not 
secede,  was  composed  of  twenty-three  states,  with  over 
twenty-two  million  people  ;  the  South  was  composed  of 
eleven  states,  with  a  population  of  nearly  nine  million, 
about  four  million  of  whom  were  slaves. 

The  slave  states  were  geographically  divided.  Four  of 
them,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri, 
refused  to  secede.  The  people  of  western  Virginia  also 
opposed  secession  and  in  1863  organized  the  new  state  of 
West  Virginia.  In  eastern  Tennessee  the  mountaineers 
remained  true  to  the  Union.  But  aside  from  these  excep 
tions  the  South  was  remarkable  for  its  unanimity  and  the 
fidelity  of  its  people  to  the  Confederate  cause. 

The  North,  after  the  attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  arose  as 
one  man  to  defend  the  Union ;  but  as  the  war  progressed 
partisanship  again  arose  to  the  surface  and  President 
Lincoln  was  often  handicapped  for  want  of  hearty  support. 

One  great  advantage  of  the  South  over  the  North  lay  in 
its  better-trained  men.  A  large  class  in  that  section  were 
z  337 


338      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

familiar  with  the  chase,  they  were  good  horsemen  and 
good  marksmen  and  they  made  good  soldiers.  No  such 
class  could  be  found  at  the  North ;  but  after  the  first  year, 
when  the  Union  soldiers  became  drilled  in  the  field,  this 
difference  disappeared. 

The  advantages  of  the  North,  however,  were  greater 
than  those  of  the  South.  First,  it  had  more  men  and 
more  money.  The  proportion  of  men  was  about  as  five 
to  two,  while  the  North  was  immeasurably  richer  than  the 
South. 

A  most  notable  advantage  of  the  North  over  the  South 
lay  in  the  fact  that  it  enjoyed  foreign  relations  and  the 
South  did  not.  On  the  iQth  of  April  President  Lin 
coln  issued  his  proclamation  blockading  the  southern  coast. 
Our  navy  was  insignificant  and  there  could  be  no  real 
blockade  at  first ;  but  the  shipyards  were  kept  in  operation 
day  and  night,  many  merchant  vessels  were  turned  into 
ships  of  war,  and  before  the  end  of  the  war  every  South 
ern  port  was  closed  to  the  outside  world.  The  South  was 
in  the  direst  need  of  guns,  ammunition,  and  clothing,  but 
could  not  purchase  from  abroad  owing  to  the  blockade. 
Great  stacks  of  cotton,  piled  along  the  seacoast,  could  be 
bought  for  four  cents  a  pound,  while  it  was  worth  $2.50  at 
Liverpool.  A  ton  of  salt  worth  $7  in  the  West  Indies, 
sold  for  $1700  in  gold  at  Richmond  —  all  on  account  of 
the  blockade  and  the  want  of  foreign  relations. 

The  North  might  have  dispensed  with  foreign  relations 
altogether  and  yet  have  won  in  the  great  struggle.  This 
brings  us  to  the  chief  advantage  of  the  North  over  the 
South  —  its  ability  to  manufacture  its  own  materials. 
Every  Union  soldier  could  have  been  fed  from  the  north 
ern  farms,  clothed  from  the  Northern  mills,  and  equipped 
from  the  Northern  foundries.  The  South  was  an  agricul- 


THE    BORDER    STATES  339 

tural  region.  It  had  purchased  its  manufactured  articles 
from  the  North  or  from  abroad,  but  this  trade  was  now 
shut  off.  Slave  labor  was  incapable  of  manufacturing, 
and  skilled  laborers  would  not  settle  in  the  South  and 
work  among  slaves.  Nor  could  the  South  now  turn  to 
manufacturing;  its  men  of  brains  were  in  the  armies. 
The  great  handicap  of  the  Confederacy,  therefore,  was 
caused  by  its  isolation  through  the  blockade  and  its  in 
ability  to  engage  in  manufacturing. 

The  Border  States.  —  President  Lincoln  exercised  the 
greatest  tact  in  his  efforts  to  prevent  the  seceding  of  the 
four  border  states  —  Delaware,  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and 
Missouri.  A  wave  of  the  disunion  sentiment  swept  over 
Maryland  during  the  fateful  April,  1861.  On  the  iQth 
the  troops  from  Massachusetts,  passing  through  Baltimore, 
were  attacked  by  a  mob  and  several  on  both  sides  were 
killed.  This  was  the  first  bloodshed  of  the  Civil  War. 
Maryland  at  length  decided  to  remain  in  the  Union,  but 
many  of  her  citizens  entered  the  armies  of  the  South, 
though  a  greater  number  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Union. 

In  Kentucky  the  governor  was  a  secessionist,  but  the 
legislature  and  a  large  majority  of  the  people  were  unwill 
ing  to  abandon  the  old  flag,  and  the  state  remained  in  the 
Union.  In  Missouri  there  was  a  fierce  struggle.  The 
governor  and  many  members  of  the  legislature  were  for 
secession,  but  when  the  people  were  called  to  vote  on  the 
great  question,  they  decided  by  a  large  majority  against 
secession. 

OPENING  OF  HOSTILITIES 

The  early  spring  months  of  1861  witnessed  the  marshal 
ing  of  armies  and  the  preparation  for  war  by  both  sides 
on  a  large  scale.  Before  the  end  of  May  fifty  thousand 


340      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Union  troops  were  gathered  about  Washington.  The 
Confederate  army  lay  along  the  northern  borders  of  Vir 
ginia.  Both  were  inactive  for  some  weeks  and  meantime 
hostilities  began  in  western  Virginia,  which  became  the 
first  battle  ground  of  the  war.  A  young  army  officer, 
George  B.  McClellan,  became  the  first  hero  of  the  North, 
except  Major  Anderson  of  Fort  Sumter  fame.  With  a 
small  army  he  drove  the  Confederates  out  of  western  Vir 
ginia  in  a  short,  vigorous  campaign.  The  people  of  that 
section  then  organized  a  new  state  government  composed 
of  about  forty  counties  of  old  Virginia,  called  it  West  Vir 
ginia,  and  sought  admission  to  the  Union.  The  new  state 
was  admitted  in  1863. 

Bull  Run  ;  Wilson's  Creek.  —  The  first  great  battle  of  the 
war  was  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  fought  in  Virginia  about 
thirty  miles  from  Washington.  The  Union  commander  in 
this  battle  was  General  Irvin  McDowell,  though  General 
Winfield  Scott,  who  remained  at  Washington,  was  the 
commander  in  chief.  Generals  Beauregard  and  Joseph 
E.  Johnston  were  in  command  of  the  Confederates.1 

The  two  armies  joined  in  battle  on  the  morning  of  July 
21,  and  for  some  hours  the  Northern  army  had  every  prom 
ise  of  victory ;  but  the  Southern  troops,  reenforced  in  the 
afternoon,  dashed  forward  with  great  confidence,  and 
the  Northern  men  took  fright,  and  started  to  retreat.  The 
retreat  became  a  rout ;  many  of  the  men  threw  down  their 
arms  and  ran  like  frightened  deer,  some  not  stopping  till 
they  reached  Washington. 

The  South  rejoiced  greatly  over  its  victory  at  Bull  Run. 
The  North  was  chagrined  and  disappointed  and  many 
denounced  the  soldiers  as  cowards.  This  was  unjust. 
Most  of  the  army  was  composed  of  raw  militia,  men  who 

1  Beauregard  and  McDowell  had  been  classmates  at  West  Point. 


EXTRA   SESSION   OF   CONGRESS  341 

knew  little  of  the  serious  business  of  war.  They  had  sud 
denly  become  panic-stricken  and  lost  their  heads  through 
sudden  fright.  Such  an  experience  might  come  to  any 
body  of  militia. 

Missouri  became  the  second  battle  ground  of  the  war. 
The  Union  army  in  Missouri  was  commanded  by  General 
Nathaniel  Lyon  and  the  Confederate  by  General  Sterling 
Price.  The  two  met  on  the  loth  of  August  at  Wil 
son's  Creek,  near  Springfield.  Here  again  the  Union 
army  suffered  a  defeat  and  the  brave  commander  Nathan 
iel  Lyon  was  among  the  slain. 

These  two  defeats  in  Virginia  and  Missouri  were  better 
than  a  victory  to  the  North.  They  awakened  the  people 
to  a  sense  of  the  magnitude  of  the  task  of  saving  the 
Union.  The  South,  on  the  other  hand,  was  misled  by 
these  early  victories.  Many  believed  that  the  war  was 
over  and  that  the  South  had  been  successful. 

Extra  Session  of  Congress.  —  Mr.  Lincoln  called  Con 
gress  to  meet  in  extra  session  in  the  early  summer  to  deal 
with  the  war  situation.  Of  the  twenty-two  senators  repre 
senting  the  seceded  states  only  one,  Andrew  Johnson  of 
Tennessee,  remained  true  to  the  Union.  Among  the 
strongest  men  in  the  Senate  were  Charles  Sumner  of 
Massachusetts  and  W.  P.  Fessenden  of  Maine.  The  leader 
of  the  House  was  Thaddeus  Stevens  of  Pennsylvania. 

The  President  in  his  message  gave  a  clear  account  of 
the  state  of  the  country  and  emphasized  the  great  impor 
tance  of  saving  the  Union.  "This  issue,"  he  stated,  "em 
braces  more  than  the  fate  of  the  United  States.  It  pre 
sents  to  the  whole  family  of  man  the  question  whether  a 
constitutional  republic  or  democracy  —  a  government  of 
the  people  by  the  same  people  —  can  or  cannot  maintain 
its  territorial  integrity  against  its  own  domestic  foes.  .  .  . 


342      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

Must  a  government  be  too  strong  for  the  liberties  of  its 
own  people,  or  too  weak  to  maintain  its  own  existence  ? " 

Congress  authorized  the  President  to  increase  the  navy 
and  the  regular  army,  and  to  call  half  a  million  volunteers 
into  the  field.  It  also  provided  for  the  finances  by  fixing 
an  income  tax,  raising  foreign  duties,  and  by  authorizing 
the  borrowing  of  a  large  sum  of  money.  After  thus  plac 
ing  the  country  on  a  war  footing,  Congress  adjourned  and 
left  the  President  practical  dictator. 

EARLY  NAVAL  AFFAIRS 

The  Trent  Affair.  —  Never  in  our  history  were  our  rela 
tions  with  Great  Britain  more  cordial  than  at  the  opening 
of  the  Civil  War ;  but  a  few  months  later  an  episode  on 
the  sea  came  dangerously  near  causing  war  between  the 
two  nations. 

The  Confederate  government  was  very  anxious  to  gain  the 
recognition  of  the  European  powers.  The  English  queen 
had  recognized  the  belligerent  rights  of  the  South  early  in 
the  conflict  and  English  sympathy  was  largely  with  that 
section,  chiefly  because  the  want  of  Southern  cotton 
would  cripple  the  great  cotton  mills  of  England.  In  the 
autumn  of  1861  President  Davis  sent  James  Mason  and 
John  Slidell  to  London  in  the  hope  that  they  might  se 
cure  the  desired  recognition  of  the  South.  They  escaped 
from  Charleston  Harbor  to  Havana  and  embarked  from 
that  port,  November  7,  i86i,for  England  on  the  British 
mail  steamer  Trent.  Next  day  the  vessel  was  stopped  at 
sea  by  Captain  Charles  Wilkes  in  command  of  the  sloop 
Sanjacinto.  Against  the  protests  of  the  English  captain, 
Wilkes  seized  Mason  and  Slidell  and  carried  them  to  Boston, 
where  they  were  imprisoned  at  Fort  Warren. 


ATLANTIC   COAST   EXPEDITIONS  343 

The  people  of  the  North  rejoiced  greatly  at  the  capture, 
but  the  English  flew  into  a  passion,  demanded  the  release 
of  the  prisoners,  and  began  to  prepare  for  war.  The  ma 
jority  of  the  people  of  the  North  were  ready  to  fight  Eng 
land  rather  than  give  up  the  men,  but  President  Lincoln 
wisely  decided  not  to  permit  the  affair  to  plunge  us  into 
another  war.  He  released  the  captives  and  the  English 
soon  let  the  matter  drop. 

Atlantic  Coast  Expeditions.  —  For  some  months  after  the 
battle  at  Wilson's  Creek  there  was  no  important  military 
movement ;  but  a  few  naval  expeditions  were  not  without 
interest.  The  blockade  was  not  at  first  effective  and  to  stop 
the  career  of  the  blockade  runners  was  the  object  of  these 
expeditions.  The  first  was  commanded  by  General  B.  F. 
Butler,  who  with  a  small  fleet  sailed  into  Hatteras  Inlet,  on 
the  coast  of  North  Carolina,  in  August,  1861,  and  within 
two  days  had  captured  two  forts  with  their  cannon  and 
ammunition  and  seven  hundred  men. 

A  far  more  important  expedition  was  that  of  Gen 
eral  Ambrose  Burnside,  in  January,  1862,  to  Roanoke  Is 
land.  This  island  which  lies  between  Albemarle  and 
Pamlico  sounds  was  well  fortified ;  but  Burnside  gained 
possession  of  it,  and  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  was  held 
by  Union  troops  to  the  end  of  the  war. 

Between  these  two  expeditions,  in  point  of  time,  another 
was  sent  to  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  to  Port  Royal, 
below  Charleston.  It  was  commanded  by  Admiral  S.  F. 
Dupont  and  General  Thomas  W.  Sherman.  This  also  was 
successful,  and  the  blockade  became  effective  almost  from 
Virginia  to  Florida.  These  successes,  after  the  defeats  at 
Bull  Run  and  Wilson's  Creek,  greatly  revived  the  spirits 
of  the  people  of  the  North. 

The  most  famous  sea  fight  in  the  war  and  the  first  battle 


344      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

of  ironclads  in  the  history  of  naval  warfare  was  that  be 
tween  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac  on  March  9,  1862. 
The  Merrimac,  a  steam  frigate  turned  by  the  Confeder 
ates  into  an  ironclad,  was  doing  great  damage  to  Ameri 
can  warships  off  Hampton  Roads,  when  the  Monitor 
arrived  from  the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard. 

The  Merrimac  was  described  as  a  "  huge,  half-submerged 
crocodile."     The  Monitor,  which  was  built  by  John  Erics- 


THE  BATTLE  BETWEEN  THE  "MONITOR"  AND  THE  "MERRIMAC" 

son,  the  Swedish  inventor,  was  scarcely  one  fourth  as 
large  as  her  antagonist.  It  was  said  to  look  like  a 
"cheese  box  on  a  raft."  The  fight  between  them  was 
fierce  and  it  continued  for  some  hours ;  but  no  lives  were 
lost.  The  Merrimac  was  so  disabled  that  soon  afterward 
it  was  burned. 

This  battle  revolutionized  naval  warfare.  From  this 
time  every  European  power  began  to  reconstruct  its 
navy  on  the  basis  of  the  ironclad. 


CAPTURE   OF   FORT    DONELSON 


345 


OPERATIONS  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY 

We  must  now  transfer  the  scene  to  the  great  central 
valley  of  the  continent.  The  twofold  object  of  the  Union 
armies  in  1862  was  to  take  Richmond,  the  Confederate 
capital,  and  to  open  the  Mississippi  River.  The  men  of 
the  West  had  a  double  reason  for  fighting  against  seces 
sion,  i.  To  save  the  river.  They  could  not  endure  the 


thought  of  this  great  artery  of  trade,  this  their  own  majes 
tic  river,  flowing  for  a  thousand  miles  through  a  foreign 
land.  2.  To  save  the  Union  because  they  loved  it. 

Capture  of  Fort  Donelson.  —  At  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1862  Kentucky  was  occupied  by  two  or  three  armies 
of  each  side,  the  Confederates  being  commanded  by  Gen 
eral  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  and  the  Northern  armies 
by  General  W.  H.  Halleck.  Early  in  February  General 


346      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Ulysses  S.  Grant  led  an  army  from  Cairo  to  invest  Fort 
Donelson,  a  Confederate  stronghold  on  the  Cumberland 
River.  The  fort  was  admirably  situated  on  a  plateau  a 
hundred  feet  above  the  river.  Grant's  army  partially 
surrounded  the  fort  and  opened  battle,  while  Commodore 
Foote,  with  a  fleet  of  gunboats,  bombarded  it  from  the 
river.  After  a  terrific  battle  of  two  or  three  days  General 
Buckner,  who  was  then  in  command,  asked  for  terms  of 
surrendering  the  fort.  Grant's  well-known  demand  of 
"  unconditional  surrender  "  was  complied  with  and  Fort 
Donelson  with  its  large  army  stores  and  fourteen  thou 
sand  men  was  surrendered  to  the  Union  army.  Now  for 
the  first  time  the  eyes  of  the  country  were  centered  on 
General  Grant,  who  was  almost  unknown  before  the  war. 
Battle  of  Shiloh.  —  Less  than  two  months  after  the  fall 
of  Fort  Donelson  occurred  the  great  battle  of  Shiloh,  or 
Pittsburg  Landing.1  The  Confederate  forces  were  gather 
ing  in  great  numbers  at  Corinth,  in  northern  Mississippi, 
and  Grant  moved  up  the  Tennessee  River.  The  two 
armies  were  of  about  the  same  size,  some  forty  thousand 
strong.  They  met  at  Pittsburg  Landing  on  the  6th  of 
April,  and  at  the  break  of  day  the  greatest  battle  ever 
yet  fought  on  the  western  continent  was  begun.  For 
two  days  the  roar  of  the  battle  was  tremendous.  On  the 
first  day  the  Southern  army  had  the  advantage,  but  the 
Union  army  was  reenforced  during  the  night  by  the  com 
ing  of  General  Buell  from  Nashville,  and  on  the  second 
day  the  Confederates  were  defeated  and  forced  to  retreat 
to  Corinth.  The  Confederates  suffered  a  great  loss  in 
the  death  of  their  brave  commander,  Albert  Sidney  John 
ston,  who  was  among  the  slain. 

1  Pittsburg  Landing  was  a  landing  for  boats  on  the  Tennessee  River  in  south 
ern  Tennessee;  Shiloh  was  a  little  log  church  about  which  the  battle  raged. 


FARRAGUT   CAPTURES   NEW   ORLEANS 


347 


At  the  same  time  that  the  battle  of  Shiloh  was  fought 
the  Union  armies  gained  another  signal  victory  in  the  cap 
ture  of  Island  No.  10  in  the  Mississippi  River,  by  General 
Pope,  and  one  month  before  this  the  North  gained  pos 
session  of  a  large  part  of  Arkansas  by  defeating  the 
Confederates  at  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge. 

This  series  of  Union  victories  was  effective  in  gaining 
possession  of  Kentucky  and  most  of  Tennessee,  in 
securing  control  of  a  large  part  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
and  in  stimulating  the  North  to  greater  efforts  to  preserve 
the  Union. 

Farragut  captures  New  Orleans.  —  Of  these  victories 
in  the  valley  of  the  great  river  the  most  important  was 


CAPTURE  OF  NEW  ORLEANS 


the  capture  of  New  Orleans,  the  greatest  seaport  of  the 
South,  in  April,  1862.  David  Glasgow  Farragut  was  a 
native  of  Tennessee,  but  he  refused  to  side  with  the  state 
of  his  birth  on  the  subject  of  secession.  Mr.  Lincoln  put 
him  in  command  of  the  most  important  naval  expedition 
of  the  war,  the  object  of  which  was  to  open  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi  and  to  capture  New  Orleans.  The 


348       SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

river  was  guarded  by  two  powerful  forts,  Jackson  and 
St.  Philip,  mounting  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  heavy 
guns.  These  were  passed  by  Farragut's  fleet  after  a  night 
battle  of  terrific  grandeur.  As  the  fleet  approached  the 
city  the  people  were  seized  with  panic ;  ten  thousand  chil 
dren  ran  screaming  through  the  streets ;  women  sobbed 
and  wailed ;  the  army  that  was  expected  to  defend  the 
city  had  fled.  On  the  first  day  of  May,  1862,  the  North 
ern  army  took  possession,  and  the  flag  of  the  Union  again 
waved  over  the  historic  city. 

THE  ARMY  OF  THE  POTOMAC 

The  Union  army  in  the  East  was  known  as  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac.  Its  first  commander  was  General  Scott, 
whom  we  have  met  before  in  the  War  of  1812,  in  the 
Mexican  War,  and  as  candidate  for  President  of  the  United 
States.  But  Scott  was  old  ;  he  failed  to  grasp  the  magnitude 
of  the  situation  and  in  November,  1861,  he  was  retired  and 
George  B.  McClellan  appointed  commander.  The  appoint 
ment  highly  pleased  the  public ;  McClellan  was  young, 
handsome,  and  well  trained.  He  had  won  public  favor  by 
his  short,  brilliant  campaign  in  western  Virginia. 

The  Peninsular  Campaign.  — After  a  sharp  fight  at  Ball's 
Bluff  in  October,  in  which  the  Union  army  was  defeated 
and  Senator  Baker  of  Oregon  was  killed,  McClellan  pre 
pared  to  move  against  the  Southerners.  But  the  army  was 
greatly  in  need  of  organization  and  drilling,  in  which  Mc 
Clellan  was  a  master.  Weeks  passed,  and  months,  and 
McClellan  was  still  drilling  his  army.  At  length  he  decided 
to  move  his  troops  to  the  "  Peninsula,"  formed  by  the  James 
and  York  rivers,  two  hundred  miles  from  Washington. 
This  decision  caused  further  delay  and  the  public  began  to 


THE   SEVEN    DAYS1   FIGHT   BEFORE   RICHMOND      349 

lose  patience.  The  moving  of  such  an  army  —  one  hundred 
and  twenty-one  thousand  men  and  fifteen  thousand  horses  and 
mules  —  required  more  time  ;  but  at  last,  in  the  early  spring 
of  1862,  McClellan  had  reached  the  Peninsulaand  was  ready 
to  approach  Richmond.  But  the  Confederates  blocked  his 
way  and  on  May  5,  the  battle  of  Williamsburg  was  fought. 
After  this  battle  McClellan  pushed  on,  and  on  the  last  day 
of  the  month  met  the  army  of  Virginia  at  Fair  Oaks,  or 
Seven  Pines,  where  a  greater  battle  took  place.  In  this 
battle  the  Confederates  were  pressed  back  and  their  com 
mander,  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  was  severely  wounded. 

The  Seven  Days'  Fight  before  Richmond.  —  The  wounding 
of  Johnston  occasioned  the  appointment  of  Robert  E.  Lee 
as  the  Southern  commander.  Lee  was  the  son  of  "  Light 
Horse  Harry  "  Lee  of  Revolutionary  fame.  He  was  a 
man  of  noble  impulses  and  of  sincere  life,  and  his  name 
still  inspires  the  highest  respect  in  every  part  of  the 
country.  Lee  now  called  Thomas  J.  Jackson,  who  had,  at 
the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  received  the  name  "  Stonewall " 
Jackson,  to  join  him  with  another  army. 

The  first  of  the  seven  days'  battles  was  fought  at 
Mechanicsville  on  June  26.  Lee  suffered  a  defeat  because 
he  had  unwisely  divided  his  army.  Next  day  a  more  for 
midable  battle  was  fought  at  Gaines  Mills,' the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  failing  to  win  a  victory  from  the  same  cause  that 
had  brought  Lee  defeat  the  day  before — a  divided  army. 

But  little  fighting  was  done  on  the  next  two  days  and 
McClellan  skillfully  moved  his  base  of  supplies  from  the 
York  to  the  bank  of  the  James  River.  On  the  3Oth 
occurred  the  battle  of  Frazier's  Farm,  but  the  next  day  was 
to  bring  the  final  battle  of  the  campaign,  at  Malvern  Hill, 
a  low  plateau  on  the  north  bank  of  the  James. 

McClellan  arranged  his  army  in  a  semicircle  on  the  hill 


350      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


with  his  batteries  placed  in  tier  above  tier.  Lee  made 
several  desperate  assaults,  but  was  repulsed  with  great 
slaughter. 

The  Union  loss  of  men  in  the  entire  campaign  was 
15,249;  the  Confederate  loss  was  slightly  above  19,000. 
McClellan  was  about  to  begin  further  operations  in  the 


SCEISTE  OF  W 
IN" 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


Dorm,,  t  Co.,  y.r. 


direction  of  Richmond  when  President  Lincoln  ordered 
him  to  return  with  his  army  to  Washington.  McClellan 
was  criticised  for  being  too  slow,  and  the  criticism  was 
well  grounded  ;  but  President  Lincoln  was  also  at  fault 
in  interfering  with  the  movements  of  the  army.  He  should 
have  given  his  general  a  free  hand  or  asked  his  resignation. 
Pope's  Campaign  in  Virginia.  —  General  John  Pope,  who 
had  won  national  fame  by  forcing  the  surrender  of  Island 


ANTIETAM 


351 


No.  10,  was  called  East  in  the  spring  of  1862  and  given 
command  of  an  army  in  Virginia.  After  McClellan's 
recall  from  the  peninsula  a  large  part  of  his  army  was  also 
given  to  Pope,  who  then  began  a  campaign  in  the  direction 
of  the  old  battle  ground  at  Bull  Run. 

On  August  9  a  sharp  battle  was  fought  at  Cedar  Moun 
tain  between  a  detachment  of  Pope's  army  under  General 
N.  P.  Banks  and  a  division  of  Lee's  army  under  Stonewall 
Jackson,  neither  gaining  great  advantage.  Three  weeks 
later,  at  the  battle  of  Groveton,  the  main  armies  were  en 
gaged  and  the  Confederates  won  a  partial  victory.  Next 
day,  August  30,  a  far  greater  battle  took  place  and  Lee  won 
a  far  more  decisive  victory.  This  was  almost  on  the  same 
ground  where  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  had  been  fought 
thirteen  months  before,  and  is  known  as  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  .Run.  Two  days  later  the  Union  army  was  again 
defeated,  at  Chantilly. 
Pope  was  now  so  dis 
heartened  at  his  failure 
that  he  led  the  army 
back  to  Washington 
and  was  relieved  of  his 
command. 

Antietam.  —  George 
B.  McClellan  was  again 
called  to  take  command 
of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  and  he  did  so 
without  a  murmur  con 
cerning  the  past.  Lee 
was  so  encouraged  with 
his  success  that  he  decided  on  an  immediate  invasion  of 
Maryland  and  in  a  short  time  his  army  was  marching 


GENERAL  MCCLELLAN 


352       SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

toward  Harper's  Ferry.  Lee's  purpose  was  to  win  Mary 
land,  if  possible,  to  secede  and  join  the  Confederacy,  but 
he  found  little  encouragement  from  the  people  of  that 
state.  McClellan  followed  Lee  and  the  two  armies  met 
at  South  Mountain,  near  Harper's  Ferry,  where  a  con 
siderable  battle  was  fought.  Among  the  wounded  was  R. 
B.  Hayes,  a  future  President  of  the  United  States.  The 
Army  of  the  Potomac  won  a  victory,  but  failed  to  save 
Harper's  Ferry,  which  was  captured  by  Stonewall  Jackson 
with  its  great  stores  and  twelve  thousand  men. 

On  the  morning  of  the  i;th  of  September  the  two 
armies,  on  the  banks  of  Antietam  Creek,  began  one  of  the 
hardest  fought  battles  of  the  war.  This  has  been  pro 
nounced  the  bloodiest  single  day's  righting  in  American 
history.  All  day  the  battle  roared  and  at  the  coming  of 
night  about  twelve  thousand  men  of  each  side  lay  dead 
or  wounded  on  the  ground.  McClellan  intended  to  attack 
again,  but  Lee  crossed  the  Potomac  in  the  night  and 
marched  back  to  Virginia.  Had  Lee  won  at  Antietam  he 
would  have  struck  Baltimore,  or  marched  into  Pennsylvania. 
The  President  urged  McClellan  to  pursue  Lee,  but  Mc 
Clellan  waited  for  some  weeks,  drilling  his  army  and  calling 
for  supplies,  whereupon  Mr.  Lincoln  dismissed  him  from 
his  command  and  appointed  General  Ambrose  E.  Burnside 
in  his  stead. 

EMANCIPATION 

We  have  noticed  that  at  first  the  war  was  a  war  to  save 
the  Union ;  there  was  no  intention  of  attacking  slavery 
where  it  existed.  But  before  a  year  had  passed  a  great 
many  people  were  persuaded  that  it  would  be  unwise 
to  leave  the  cause  of  the  war  untouched  to  disturb  the 
peace  of  the  country  hereafter.  Why  not  strike  at  slavery  ? 


STEPS    TOWARD    EMANCIPATION  353 

This  was  the  sentiment  of  President  Lincoln,  but  he  was 
too  wise  to  be  rash,  and  many  grew  impatient  at  his 
delay. 

Steps  toward  Emancipation.  —  In  August,  1861,  Con 
gress  passed  an  act  to  confiscate  property,  including  slaves, 
if  used  to  aid  in  the  rebellion  against  the  government.  In 
April,  1862,  it  passed  an  act  abolishing  slavery  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  with  compensation.  In  June  a  law 
was  passed  prohibiting  slavery  in  all  territories  of  the 
United  States.  On  July  17,  1862,  a  sweeping  Confiscation 
Act  was  passed,  by  which  all  slaves  who  came  within  the 
protection  of  the  government  should  be  free,  if  their 
owners  were  in  rebellion  against  the  government. 

Meantime  Mr.  Lincoln  was  working  to  have  the  govern 
ment  purchase  and  set  free  the  slaves  of  the  border  states, 
and  an  act  was  passed  by  Congress  to  that  end ;  but  as 
the  border  states  refused  to  accept  it,  the  project  came  to 
nothing. 

The  Great  Proclamation.  —  At  length  the  President  de 
termined  to  issue  a  proclamation  declaring  the  slaves  free 
in  the  states  that  were  fighting  against  the  government. 
He  waited  for  a  Northern  victory  so  that  his  proclamation 
might  have  more  weight.  The  repulse  of  Lee  at  Antie- 
tam  furnished  the  occasion,  and  on  the  22d  of  September 
Lincoln  issued  the  great  document  declaring  that  on  and 
after  the  first  of  the  following  January  all  slaves  in  the  se 
ceded  states  should  be  henceforth  and  forever  free,  except 
in  the  portions  already  occupied  by  the  Union  armies,  un 
less  those  states  should  meantime  return  to  their  place  in 
the  Union.1 

What  the  Proclamation  did.  —  The  Emancipation  Procla 
mation  did  not  free  the  slaves  ;  neither  did  the  Declaration 

1  This  proclamation  did  not  affect  slavery  in  the  four  border  states. 

2A 


354      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED    STATES 

of  Independence  bring  independence.  What  the  Proclama 
tion  did  was  to  lay  down  the  policy  of  the  government ; 
namely,  if  the  North  won  in  the  great  contest,  slavery 
should  no  longer  exist  in  the  country.  It  put  the  war  on 
a  new  basis,  making  it  a  twofold  struggle  —  against  slavery 
as  well  as  against  secession. 

The  right  of  the  President  to  issue  the  proclamation  has 
often  been  questioned.  Ordinarily  the  President  has  no 
more  right  than  any  other  citizen  to  interfere  with  private 
property.  But  a  President  has  powers  in  time  of  war  that 
he  does  not  enjoy  in  time  of  peace.  It  is  his  right  and 
duty  to  use  all  the  resources  of  the  United  States  to  put 
down  an  insurrection.  Here  was  a  great  insurrection, 
and  it  was  the  slaves  that  raised  the  crops  that  fed 
the  armies  that  fought  against  the  government.  As  a 
war  measure,  therefore,  Mr.  Lincoln  had  a  right  to  do 
what  he  did.  His  real  object,  however,  was  to  compass 
the  downfall  of  slavery,  to  give  the  black  man  a  chance, 
and  to  save  the  country  from  distraction  over  this  hated 
subject  in  the  future.  From  this  time  forth  the  Northern 
armies  had  two  things  to  fight  for —  to  preserve  the  Union 
and  to  rid  the  country  of  slavery. 

THE  CONFEDERATE  GOVERNMENT 

As  noticed  on  a  preceding  page,  the  Confederate  govern 
ment  was  organized  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  and  was 
soon  removed  to  Richmond,  Virginia.  The  "  permanent 
Constitution  "  adopted  was  based  for  the  most  part  on  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States.  The  presidential  term 
was  six  years  instead  of  four.  President  Davis  chose  a 
cabinet  of  six  men,  two  of  whom  were  able  statesmen, 
Robert  Toombs  of  Georgia  and  Judah  P.  Benjamin  of 
Louisiana.  Two  congresses  were  elected  for  two  years 


SUSPENSION  OF  THE  WRIT  OF  HABEAS  CORPUS     355 

each.  The  only  Speaker  of  the  House  was  Thomas  S. 
Bocock  of  Virginia.  Most  of  the  sessions  were  held  in 
secret  and  most  of  the  laws  passed  were  previously  ar 
ranged  by  President  Davis. 

There  were  many  trained  statesmen  in  the  South,  but 
they  had  little  opportunity  to  display  their  power  of  self- 
government.  The  four  years'  existence  of  the  Confederacy 
was  one  long  death  struggle  with  a  stronger  power.  It 
defrayed  the  expenses  of  the  war  at  first  by  the  issue  of 
bonds ;  but  as  this  became  more  difficult  it  issued  paper 
money  in  large  quantities,  which  fell  in  value  till  it  became 
worthless.  On  the  whole  the  struggle  of  the  Confederacy 
for  life  was  one  of  the  most  heroic  in  history. 

POLITICS  IN  THE  NORTH 

At  the  opening  of  the  war  the  Democrats  had  responded 
heartily  in  support  of  the  government ;  but  as  time  passed 
they  began  to  criticise  and  oppose  the  administration.  To 
do  this  is  the  chief  business  of  the  party  out  of  power  in 
the  United  States  and  usually  it  is  a  good  wholesome 
thing  for  the  country. 

Suspension  of  the  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus.  —  The  Consti 
tution  provides  that  in  time  of  peace  no  one  shall  be 
arrested  and  imprisoned  without  a  speedy  trial ;  but  in 
time  of  war  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  make  exceptions 
to  the  rule.  Such  exception  is  called  a  suspension  to  the 
writ  of  Habeas  Corpus.1  Mr.  Lincoln  exercised  this  power 
freely  during  the  war.  Thousands  of  men  were  placed 

1  The  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  (Latin  for  "  you  may  have  the  body  ")  is  an 
order  of  a  court  to  produce  the  body  of  one  under  arrest  and  to  show  why  he 
is  arrested.  It  had  its  origin  in  the  Magna  Charta  of  the  year  1215. 

The  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  was  also  suspended  in  the  South,  and  there  too 
the  suspension  caused  much  opposition. 


356      SCHOOL    HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

under  arrest  and  detained  indefinitely  without  trial  for  "  dis 
loyal  practices,"  "  discouraging  enlistments,"  and  the  like. 

This  practice  was  vigorously  attacked  by  the  Democrats, 
and,  indeed,  by  many  leading  Republicans.  The  suspen 
sion  of  the  writ  in  the  states  not  occupied  by  the  armies 
awakened  widespread  opposition  and  no  doubt  did  more 
harm  than  good  to  the  administration. 

The  Democrats  found  many  other  things  to  criticise, 
and  many  of  them  were  displeased  with  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation,  declaring  that  they  were  fighting  for  the 
Union  and  not  for  the  negro.  So  great  was  the  opposition 
that  the  administration  lost  several  of  the  great  Northern 
states  in  the  autumn  elections  of  1862. 

Draft  Riots  ;  Vallandigham.  —  At  the  beginning  of  the 
war  there  were  more  volunteers  than  could  be  used.  But 
the  enthusiasm  subsided,  volunteering  almost  ceased,  and 
the  North  followed  the  example  of  the  South  and  resorted 
to  the  draft.  In  many  places  there  was  an  outcry  against 
the  draft,  and  in  New  York  and  some  other  cities  it  broke 
into  open  riot.  The  city  of  New  York  was  in  the  power 
of  a  howling  mob  for  some  days  and  was  restored  only  by 
the  coming  of  a  body  of  troops.  In  the  end  the  people 
submitted  to  the  draft  and  the  ranks  of  the  armies  were 
refilled  by  conscription. 

The  most  conspicuous  opponent  of  the  draft  and  of 
arbitrary  arrests  was  Clement  L.  Vallandigham,  a  former 
member  of  Congress  from  Ohio  and  the  Democratic  candi 
date  for  governor  of  that  state  in  1863.  Mr.  Vallandigham, 
in  his  speeches,  denounced  the  administration  unsparingly, 
and  at  length  officers  were  sent  to  his  home,  at  Dayton,  to 
arrest  him.  At  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  they  burst  the 
door  of  his  bedchamber,  arrested  and  carried  him  to  Cin 
cinnati.  He  was  tried  by  a  military  court,  found  guilty  of 


DOINGS   OF   CONGRESS  357 

"  declaring  disloyal  sentiments,"  and  sentenced  to  imprison 
ment  during  the  war.  Mr.  Lincoln  changed  the  sentence 
to  banishment  to  the  Confederacy.  His  order  was  duly 
carried  out ;  but  Mr.  Vallandigham  did  not  remain  long 
in  the  South.  He  escaped  in  a  blockade  runner  and 
made  his  way  to  Canada,  and  it  was  while  there  that  he 
was  nominated  for  governor.  In  his  race  for  governor  he 
was  defeated  by  a  large  majority.  The  next  year  he  re 
turned  to  Ohio,  but  was  not  again  molested. 

In  the  summer  of  1863  General  Morgan,  a  Southern  com 
mander,  made  a  cavalry  raid  through  southern  Indiana  and 
Ohio  ;  but  he  was  captured  and  most  of  his  force  destroyed. 

Doings  of  Congress.  —  During  the  war  period  Congress 
attracted  less  attention  than  usual  because  the  eyes  of  the 
country  were  directed  to  the  armies  and  to  the  President, 
whose  "  war  powers  "  led  him  to  intrench  greatly  on  the 
powers  of  Congress.  A  few  acts  of  Congress,  however, 
aside  from  those  necessary  in  carrying  on  the  war,  were  of 
much  importance. 

The  Homestead  Act  of  1862  greatly  aided  in  settling  the 
great  West.  By  this  a  settler  who  spent  five  years  on  a 
tract  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  could  own  it  by  pay 
ing  $1.25  an  acre. 

In  1863  our  present  national  banking  system  was  estab 
lished  by  an  act  of  Congress.  By  this  act,  and  another 
act  of  the  following  year,  a  company  of  five  or  more 
persons  with  a  certain  amount  of  capital  could  establish 
a  bank.  The  banking  company  was  then  obliged  to 
deposit  government  bonds  in  the  United  States  treasury 
and  was  permitted  to  issue  notes  to  the  extent  of  ninety 
per  cent  of  its  bonds.  The  government  held  the  bonds  as 
security  for  the  notes  and  redeemed  the  notes  in  case  of 
the  bank's  failure.  Thus,  by  laying  its  hand  on  the 


358      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

people's  money,  the  government  inspired  confidence  and 
secured  loans  more  readily.  The  national  banking  system 
has  grown  in  favor  to  this  day.  The  father  of  it  was 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  secretary  of  the  treasury. 

Many  acts  of  Congress  for  carrying  on  the  war  were 
important  at  the  time,  but  only  temporary  in  their  opera 
tion.  Among  these  were  the  Legal  Tender  Act  of  1862, 
and  the  various  laws  for  raising  revenue.  By  these  acts  the 
war  expenses  were  met,  though  not  without  an  enormous 
increase  in  the  public  debt. 

FURTHER  OPERATIONS  IN  THE  WEST 

We  left  General  Grant  at  Pittsburg  Landing  after  the 
great  battle  there  in  April,  1862.  General  W.  H.  Halleck, 
who  was  in  superior  command,  took  immediate  control 
after  the  battle  of  Shiloh  and  led  the  army  to  Corinth, 
the  Confederates  fleeing  at  his  approach.  In  the  sum 
mer  Halleck  was  called  to  Washington  and  made  com 
mander  of  all  the  armies  in  the  United  States.  Grant 
was  thus  left  in  command  of  this  army;  but  he  did 
little  for  a  year  and  public  attention  was  turned  to 
Kentucky. 

Buell;  Bragg;  Rosecrans. —  General  Braxton  Bragg  be 
came  the  commander  of  the  Confederate  army,  and  Presi 
dent  Davis,  in  the  hope  of  winning  Kentucky  to  secession, 
sent  him  to  invade  that  state  about  the  same  time  that  Lee 
invaded  Maryland.  General  Buell  was  sent  after  Bragg 
and  the  two  raced  across  the  state  for  Louisville.  Buell 
won  and  entered  the  city  (September,  1862),  recruited  his 
army,  and  determined  to  drive  Bragg  out  of  the  state.  This 
he  succeeded  in  doing  after  a  considerable  battle  at  Perry- 
ville  in  October.  But  Buell,  like  McClellan,  was  thought 


GRANT   INVESTS   VICKSBURG  359 

too  slow  in  his  pursuit  and  was  replaced  by  General  Wil 
liam  S.  Rosecrans,  who  had  but  recently  won  a  signal  vic 
tory  at  Corinth. 

On  the  last  day  of  the  year  1862,  the  armies  of  Rose 
crans  and  Bragg  met  at  Murfreesboro,  or  Stone  River,  and 
after  two  days  of  desperate  fighting  Bragg  was  obliged  to 
retire. 

Meantime  Grant  and  Sherman  had  gone  down  the 
Mississippi,  which  was  now  under  Union  control  as  far  as 
Vicksburg.  Their  hope  was  to  capture  that  city,  but  at 
this  time  they  failed  to  do  so. 

VICKSBURG  AND  GETTYSBURG 

After  Admiral  Farragut  had  captured  New  Orleans  he 
sailed  up  the  Mississippi  past  Vicksburg,  and,  seeing  what 
a  strategic  point  that  city  was,  begged  Halleck  to  send  a 
portion  of  the  army  to  occupy  it.  Had  this  been  done  the 
Union  armies  would  have  controlled  the  entire  course  of 
the  great  river  and  Texas,  Arkansas,  and  Louisiana  would 
have  been  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  Confederacy.  But 
Halleck  let  the  opportunity  slip  ;  the  Confederates  fortified 
Vicksburg,  and  to  capture  it  cost  the  North  a  year  of 
weary  warfare  and  thousands  of  human  lives. 

Grant  invests  Vicksburg.  —  General  Grant,  with  General 
W.  T.  Sherman  as  his  chief  lieutenant,  determined  on  the 
capture  of  the  great  Confederate  stronghold,  Vicksburg. 
But  it  was  exceedingly  difficult  to  approach  the  city  by 
land  or  from  the  river.  Various  plans  were  attempted  and 
given  up  and  nearly  a  year  passed  before  any  effective 
work  was  done. 

At  last  Grant  conceived  the  plan  that  succeeded  ;  namely, 
to  run  his  supply  boats  past  the  batteries  under  the 


360      SCHOOL    HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


protection  of  Admiral  Porter's  ironclads,  and  to  move  the 
army  below  the  city  by  the  overland  route.  This  was  done 
in  April,  1863. 

General  Pemberton,  who  commanded  at  Vicksburg,  came 
out  to  meet  Grant  and  a  battle  was  fought  at  Champion 
Hill,  in  which  Pemberton  lost  all  his  artillery  and  four 
thousand  men.  A  day  later  Grant  won  another  victory 

at  the  Big  Black 
River,1  and  on 
May  1 8  his  army 
was  lodged  on  the 
heights  around 
Vicksburg. 

After  making 
a  grand  assault  on 
May  22,  in  which 
he  lost  3000  men 
and  won  nothing, 
Grant  settled 
down  to  a  regular 
siege  of  the  city. 
For  six  weeks  the 
men  worked  in 
the  trenches,  ap 
proaching  nearer 
and  nearer  the  doomed  city.  Porter's  fleet  on  the  river 
bombarded  the  town  day  and  night,  the  shrieking  shells 
rising  in  grand  parabolic  curves.  Many  people  of  the  city 
found  safety  by  burrowing  in  the  ground.  The  inhabitants 
were  perishing  with  hunger  when,  on  the  3d  of  July,  the 
white  flag  was  raised  above  the  parapet,  the  city  surren- 

1  Before  meeting  Pemberton,  Grant  had  met  and  defeated  an  army  in  the 
interior  of  Mississippi  and  had  captured  Jackson,  the  capital  of  the  state. 


THE   ARMY   OF   THE   POTOMAC  361 

dered  with  its  172  cannon,  60,000  muskets,  and  37,000 
soldiers,  who  became  prisoners  of  war. 

A  few  days  later  Port  Hudson,  the  last  Confederate 
stronghold  on  the  Mississippi,  also  surrendered,  and  in  the 
vigorous  language  of  Mr.  Lincoln,  "  The  Father  of  Waters 
rolled  unvexed  to  the  sea." 

The  Army  of  the  Potomac  we  left  stunned  and  bleeding, 
but  not  defeated,  after  the  great  battle  of  Antietam,  Gen 
eral  Burnside  having  suc 
ceeded  McClellan  as  its 
commander.  Its  number 
was  swelled  by  reinforce 
ments  to  120,000  men.' 
Lee's  army  was  soon 
raised  to  about  80,000. 
These  two  great  armies 
met  in  December,  1862, 
at  Fredericksburg,  about 
halfway  between  Wash 
ington  and  Richmond. 

Lee's    army   was    well 
intrenched  on   the    bank 

of     the      Rappahannock 

_,          ......  GENERAL  ROBERT  E.  LEE 

when  Burnside  decided  to 

cross  the  river  and  make  the  attack.  The  decision  was 
foolhardy,  so  well  was  Lee's  army  protected  by  breast 
works.  Division  after  division  of  the  Union  army  dashed 
up  the  hill  only  to  be  driven  back  each  time  with  dreadful 
slaughter.  Six  times,  in  the  face  of  a  murderous  fire,  the 
brave  men  charged  in  vain,  until  twelve  thousand  of  their 
number  lay  dead  or  wounded  on  the  slope.1 

Night  ended  the  battle.     Burnside  was  wild  with  anguish 

1  The  Confederate  loss  was  about  $000. 


362      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


at  what  he  had  done.  "  Oh,  those  men,  those  men  over 
there,  I  am  thinking  of  them  all  the  time,"  he  wailed, 
pointing  to  the  dead  and  dying  across  the  river. 

Soon  after  the  carnage  at  Fredericksburg  Burnside  was 
relieved  and  General  Joseph  Hooker  was  appointed  to 
command  the  army.  Some  months  passed  when  the  two 

armies  met  again,  at 
Chancellorsville,  in  the 
early  days  of  May. 
Here  again,  after  three 
days  of  desperate  fight 
ing,  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  was  defeated 
with  a  loss  of  17,000 
men.  Lee's  loss  was 
about  12,000.  It  was  in 
this  battle  that  the  dash 
ing  Confederate  leader, 
Stonewall  Jackson,  re 
ceived  his  death  wound.1 
The  Battle  of  Gettys 
burg.  —  So  flushed  with 
victory  was  Lee  after 
Chancellorsville  that  he 
determined  to  invade  the 
North.  He  moved  into 
Pennsylvania.  The 

Army  of  the  Potomac,  on  the  other  hand,  was  depressed 
with  defeats.  For  two  years,  under  its  many  masters,  it  had 
met  with  one  discouragement  after  another  and  few  were 
the  bright  pages  to  cheer  the  heart  of  the  war-broken 

1  It  is  said  that  Jackson  was  shot  by  his  own  men.  See  note  at  end  of  this 
chapter. 


THE   BATTLE   OF   GETTYSBURG  363 

soldier.  But  Hooker  determined  to  follow  Lee,  and  the 
two  great  armies  met  again,  at  the  little  town  of  Gettys 
burg,  in  southern  Pennsylvania,  and  here  was  to  be  fought 
the  greatest  battle  that  this  western  world  has  ever  known. 
On  the  eve  of  the  battle  Hooker  resigned  his  command 
and  General  George  G.  Meade  was  appointed  to  fill  the 


SCENE  AT  BATTLE  OF  GETTYSBURG 

place.  The  battle  continued  for  three  days,  the  first  three 
days  of  July,  1863.  On  the  first  day  the  Union  army  was 
driven  back  and  had  the  contest  then  ended,  the  usual 
story  of  defeat  would  have  gone  forth  to  the  world. 
The  army  lost  10,000  men  ;  among  these  was  General  John 
F.  Reynolds  who  fell  dead  early  in  the  day  with  a  sharp 
shooter's  bullet  in  his  brain. 


364      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

The  feature  of  the  second  day  was  the  terrific  fight  in  a 
wheat  field,  since  known  as  the  Valley  of  Death.  Here 
the  two  armies  fought  with  desperate  valor  for  hours  and 
at  evening  thousands  of  men  lay  in  heaps,  dead  and 
wounded,  the  blue  and  the  gray  commingled. 

The  third  day  was  marked  by  Pickett's  famous  charge, 
preceded  by  some  hours  of  the  heaviest  cannonad 
ing  ever  heard  on  the  American  continent.  About  four 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon  General  Pickett  led  15,000 
Confederate  troops  in  an  assault  on  the  Union  center. 
His  hope  was  to  split  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  twain, 
and  for  a  time  it  seemed  that  he  would  succeed.  But  the 
burst  of  cannon  and  the  hail  of  musketry  was  so  terrific 
that  no  army,  however  brave,  could  have  stood  against 
them.  Pickett's  men  were  cut  down  in  great  numbers ; 
many  surrendered,  and  the  remnant,  blood-stained  and 
weary,  fled  back  to  the^Confederate  lines  whence  they  had 
started.  The  great  battle  was  over,  and  Lee  abandoned 
his  project  of  invading  the  North  and  led  his  defeated 
army  back  to  Virginia. 

The  losses  at  Gettysburg  were  frightful,  more  than 
50,000  men  —  dead,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 

The  tide  of  war  rose  to  its  height  at  Gettysburg.  At 
this  time  the  cause  of  the  South  took  a  downward  turn,  not 
only  here,  but  in  the  West,  for  it  was  at  the  very  hour  of 
Pickett's  charge,  that  Grant  and  Pemberton,  a  thousand 
miles  away,  stood  under  an  oak  tree  on  the  heights  above 
the  rolling  Mississippi,  and  arranged  for  the  surrender  of 
Vicksburg. 

SUMMARY 

The  fall  of  Fort  Sumter  removed  all  hope  of  compromise  between 
the  North  and  the  South. 

The  South  was  geographically  divided ;    four  slave  states  did  not 


SUMMARY  365 

secede,  and  the  people  of  western  Virginia  and  of  eastern  Tennessee 
opposed  secession. 

The  North  was  composed  of  twenty-three  states,  with  22,000,000 
population ;  the  South  of  eleven  states,  with  9,000,000  people. 

The  South  had  the  advantage  of  better-trained  men,  and  of  fighting 
on  their  own  soil.  The  advantages  of  the  North  were,  more  men,  more 
money,  foreign  relations,  and  ability  to  manufacture. 

In  April,  1861,  Mr.  Lincoln  issued  his  proclamation  blockading  the 
Southern  ports,  which  in  time  became  very  effective. 

The  first  great  battle  was  at  Bull  Run,  where  the  Union  army  was 
defeated.  This  defeat  roused  the  North  to  greater  effort.  At  Wilson's 
Creek  in  Missouri  General  Lyon  was  defeated  and  killed. 

Congress  met  in  extra  session  in  July,  1861,  put  the  country  on  a 
war  footing,  and  adjourned,  leaving  the  President  practically  dictator. 

The  naval  expeditions  down  the  Atlantic  coast  secured  to  the  North 
the  control  of  the  coast  almost  from  Virginia  to  Florida. 

In  the  spring  of  1862  the  operations  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  resulted 
in  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson  and  Island  No.  10,  in  the  defeat  of  the 
Confederates  at  Pittsburg  Landing,  and  the  capture  of  New  Orleans. 
Meantime  McClellan  was  operating  against  Richmond  from  the  penin 
sula.  He  was  recalled  in  June,  soon  after  which  Pope  was  defeated  at 
Bull  Run.  McClellan  was  again  put  in  command,  and  at  Antietam 
he  checked  Lee's  invasion  of  Maryland. 

Soon  after  the  battle  of  Antietam  President  Lincoln  issued  his 
Emancipation  Proclamation,  which  put  the  war  on  a  twofold  basis  —  as 
a  war  against  slavery  as  well  as  against  secession. 

The  draft  of  1863  caused  riots  in  New  York  and  other  cities.  Mr. 
Vallandigham  of  Ohio  was  arrested  and  sent  into  the  Confederate 
lines,  but  escaped  and  fled  to  Canada. 

Congress  passed  the  Homestead  Act  in  1862  and  established  our 
national  banking  system  in  1863  and  1864. 

In  the  Mississippi  Valley  Bragg  led  an  army  into  Kentucky  and  was 
driven  out  by  Buell.  Rosecrans  succeeded  Buell  and  defeated  Bragg  at 
Stone  River.  The  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  defeated  under  Burnside 
at  Fredericksburg  and  under  Hooker  at  Chancellorsville.  Lee  then 
marched  into  Pennsylvania,  but  was  repulsed  at  Gettysburg  in  a 
terrific  three-days  battle.  At  the  same  time  Grant  forced  the  sur 
render  of  Vicksburg.  These  two  events  marked  the  turning  point  in 
the  war. 


366      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


NOTE 

Lincoln  and  McClellan.  —  A  long  controversy  arose  after  the  close  of  the 
peninsular  campaign  concerning  the  merits  of  the  relations  between  President 
Lincoln  and  General  McClellan.  Many  take  the  ground  that  McClellan  was  in 
competent  and  should  have  been  recalled  sooner  than  he  was,  while  others  contend 
that  the  administration  did  not  support  the  army  properly,  and  actually  desired 
McClellan's  downfall.  There  was  merit  and  blame  on  each  side.  McClellan 
was  utterly  in  the  wrong  in  believing  that  Lincoln  did  not  wish  to  sustain  him. 
He  was  wrong  also  in  overestimating  the  force  of  the  Confederates ;  but  he  accepted 
the  reports  of  his  spies,  who,  some  have  believed,  were  in  sympathy  with  the  South 
erners,  and  purposely  deceived  him.  The  assertion  of  some  that  Lincoln,  believ 
ing  that  McClellan  had  aspirations  to  the  presidency,  was  jealous  of  him  and 
wished  to  degrade  him,  will  seem  absurd  to  any  one  who  studies  Lincoln's  whole 
life.  But  Lincoln  was  at  fault  in  urging  McClellan  to  begin  great  operations 
in  midwinter.  He  simply  reflected  the  impatience  of  the  great  untrained  public. 
His  proclamation  ordering  the  army  to  move  on  the  22d  of  February  is  pronounced 
by  Ropes,  one  of  our  profoundest  military  critics,  "  a  curious  specimen  of  puerile 
impatience,"  as  war  orders  and  proclamations  "will  not  make  roads  passable." 
McClellan  was  quite  right  in  deciding  not  to  move  till  spring,  but  he  was  wrong  in 
ignoring  public  opinion.  He  should  have  made  minor  movements  here  and  there, 
as  he  could  easily  have  done,  to  quiet  public  feeling.  Again,  when  he  saw  that 
there  was  a  frantic  fear  that  Washington  would  be  captured,  he  should  have  done 
more  than  he  did  to  allay  it,  though  he  did  not  share  it.  Lincoln  was  greatly  handi 
capped  in  two  ways :  first,  his  want  of  military  training,  and,  it  may  be  added,  his 
commonplace  native  judgment  in  military  matters;  and  second,  his  inability  to 
extricate  himself  from  the  all-powerful  political  influence  at  the  capital.  Many 
of  his  appointments  were  based  on  political  grounds.  Here  is  an  example: 
McClellan  urged  (see  "  McClellan's  Own  Story,"  p.  226)  that  the  defenses  of 
Washington  be  put  into  the  hands  of  one  of  the  ablest  men  of  the  army ;  but  Lincoln 
appointed  to  this  important  post  General  Wadsworth,  a  politician  wholly  without 
military  training  or  experience.  The  secret  of  the  appointment  is  shown  in  a  letter 
to  McClellan  from  the  secretary  of  war.  "  Wadsworth,"  wrote  Stanton,  "  had  been 
selected  because  it  was  necessary  for  political  reasons  to  conciliate  the  agricultural 
interests  of  New  York,"  and  he  declared  that  it  was  useless  to  discuss  the  matter, 
as  in  no  event  would  the  appointment  be  changed.  No  ill  effects  came  of  this  ; 
but  had  a  Confederate  army  attacked  Washington  the  result  might  have  been 
disastrous.  Lincoln  was  a  victim  of  this  political  monster,  which,  in  our  govern 
ment,  is  so  powerful  that  the  strongest  man  cannot  wholly  prevail  against  it.  —  From 
Elson's  History,  p.  702. 

Stonewall  Jackson.  —  In  some  respects  this  man  was  the  most  remarkable 
character  brought  into  prominence  by  the  Civil  War.  There  is  a  glamour  of 
romance  around  the  name  of  Jackson.  He  was  a  graduate  of  West  Point ;  but, 
disliking  warfare,  he  resigned  from  the  army  and  became  a  college  professor  and  a 
teacher  in  a  squalid  negro  Sunday  School.  He  was  rather  slow-moving,  silent, 
distant,  had  few  friends,  and  was  not  generally  popular.  There  was  something 


STONEWALL  JACKSON  367 

unfathomable  in  his  nature,  but  no  one  dreamed  that  he  was  a  genius.  The  war 
brought  out  his  powers  and  proved  him  one  of  the  greatest  commanders  of  modern 
times.  The  popular  notion  that  his  attacks  were  impulsive  and  only  accidentally 
successful  was  erroneous.  His  plans  were  well  laid  and  almost  faultless.  Jackson 
was  excessively  religious,  and  his  men  said  that  when  he  remained  long  on  his 
knees  in  his  tent,  they  knew  that  a  great  battle  was  impending.  Lee's  estimate  of 
Jackson  is  shown  in  a  note  sent  him  as  he  lay  wounded.  In  this  note  Lee  stated 
that  he  would  have  chosen  for  the  good  of  the  country  to  be  disabled  in  Jackson's 
stead.  Jackson  died  on  May  10,  and  there  was  none  to  fill  his  place.  During  his 
last  hours  he  seemed  to  have  forgotten  the  great  war.  He  lived  now  with  his  God 
and  with  his  family,  who  could  never  forget  the  tender  beauty  of  his  final  words, 
"  Let  us  cross  over  the  river  and  lie  down  amid  the  shade  of  the  trees."  —  From 
Elson's  History,  p.  724. 

REFERENCES 

The  general  histories  by  Elson,  Woodrow  Wilson,  Bryant  and  Gay, 
Schouler,  and  Rhodes  all  treat  more  or  less  fully  of  the  Civil  War.  In 
addition  to  these,  Elaine's  "  Twenty  Years  in  Congress,'1  Davis's  "  Rise 
and  Fall  of  the  Confederate  Government,"  Johnson's  "  Short  History  of 
the  War,"  Ropes's  "  Story  of  the  Civil  War,"  and  many  excellent  biog 
raphies  that  have  been  written  are  recommended. 

For  the  war  period  and  the  period  following,  the  student  will  find 
Grant's  "  Memoirs  "  and  personal  writings  of  John  Sherman,  W.  T. 
Sherman,  P.  H.  Sheridan,  Hugh  McCulloch  and  other  public  men 
very  interesting  and  instructive. 


CHAPTER   XXI 
THE  CIVIL  WAR  (Continued) 

WE  have  seen  how  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  won  a  vic 
tory  at  Gettysburg  during  the  first  days  of  July,  1863,  and 
how  Grant  at  the  same  time  forced  the  surrender  of  Vicks- 
burg.  This  great  double  victory  rendered  it  practically 
certain  that  the  North  would  win  in  the  mighty  struggle, 
and  that  slavery  would  perish  and  the  Union  would  not  be 
divided.  But  the  war  was  by  no  means  over ;  the  South 
was  not  ready  to  give  up,  and  thousands  of  men  were  yet 
to  be  sacrificed. 

THE  CHATTANOOGA  CAMPAIGN 

Chickamauga.  —  The  Confederates  had  lost  an  army  at 
Vicksburg,  but  they  had  another  western  army,  that  under 
General  Bragg,  which  had  fought  Rosecrans  at  Murfrees- 
boro  in  the  early  days  of  January. 

During  the  spring  Rosecrans  held  his  army  ready  to  pre 
vent  Bragg  from  marching  to  the  aid  of  Vicksburg.  After 
the  fall  of  that  stronghold  he  moved  southward  as  if  to 
invade  Georgia.  Bragg  followed  and  the  two  armies  met 
on  the  banks  of  a  mountain  stream  whose  Indian  name, 
Chickamauga,  means  the  "  River  of  Death."  Here  was 
fought  one  of  the  greatest  battles  of  the  war.  In  the  midst 
of  the  fight  the  Union  army  became  divided  and  the  whole 
right  wing  was  swept  from  the  field.  Rosecrans  himself 
was  carried  away  in  the  mad  rush.  The  left  wing,  about 

368 


THE   CHATTANOOGA    CAMPAIGN  369 

twenty-five  thousand  men  under  General  George  H.  Thomas, 
stood  its  ground.  For  six  hours  almost  the  whole  Confed 
erate  army  dashed  against  Thomas ;  but  in  vain.  He  stood 
his  ground  till  night,  at  a  cost  of  ten  thousand  men,1  and 
from  this  time  he  was  known  as  the  "  Rock  of  Chickamauga." 

Chattanooga ;  Lookout  Mountain  ;  Missionary  Ridge.  — 
A  few  weeks  after  the  battle  of  Chickamauga  the  Union 
army  was  hemmed  in  in  the  town  of  Chattanooga  and  was 
in  danger  of  starving,  when  General  Grant  was  sent  to  the 
rescue.2  A  little  later  came  Sherman  with  the  army  that 
had  captured  Vicksburg,  and  it  was  then  decided  to  open 
battle  on  Bragg. 

Missionary  Ridge  lies  south  of  Chattanooga  and  Look 
out  Mountain,  a  bold  spur  three  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea,  rising  from  a  great  bend  of  the  Tennessee  River. 
Both  the  ridge  and  the  mountain  were  occupied  by  Bragg's 
troops.  General  Joe  Hooker,  who  had  come  from  the  East, 
was  sent  to  capture  Lookout  Mountain.  Up  the  rugged 
slopes  he  led  his  men  and  won  a  complete  victory.  The 
roar  of  cannon  from  the  mountain  top  seemed  to  indicate 
a  battle  in  the  sky.  During  part  of  the  engagement  the 
mountain  top  was  enveloped  in  mist,  and  the  fight  has  been 
called  the  "  Battle  above  the  Clouds." 

Next  day  came  the  battle  of  Missionary  Ridge.  The 
Union  soldiers  rushed  up  the  hill  in  the  face  of  fifty  boom 
ing  cannon  and  a  galling  fire  of  musketry,  and  gained  pos 
session  of  the  ridge.  Bragg  then  led  his  defeated  army 
to  Dalton,  in  northern  Georgia,  and  settled  down  for  the 
winter. 

Chattanooga  was  one  of  the  four  most  important  strong 
holds  in  the  South.  Of  the  other  three,  Richmond,  New 

1  The  loss  of  the  Confederates  was  even  greater. 

2  At  this  time  Rosecrans  was  succeeded  by  Thomas. 

2B 


370      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Orleans,  and  Vicksburg,  two  were  in  the  possession  of  the 
Northern  armies. 

Commanders  in  Chief.  —  At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  the 
aged  Winfield  Scott  was,  next  to  the  President,  commander 
of  all  the  armies  of  the  United  States.  But  Scott  had 
long  passed  the  zenith  of  his  powers,  and  in  the  autumn  of 
1862  he  was  retired  on  full  pay  and  George  B.  McClellan 
was  made  commander  in  chief ;  but  he  held  the  office  less 
than  a  year.  In  July,  1862,  William  H.  Halleck  was 
appointed  to  fill  the  place.  Halleck  was  not  a  strong 
commander,  and  though  he  filled  the  office  till  March, 
1864,  the  armies,  east  and  west,  did  not  work  in  harmony. 

After  the  capture  of  Vicksburg  and  the  defeat  of  Bragg 
at  Chattanooga  the  feeling  throughout  the  North  was  that 
General  U.  S.  Grant  was  the  strongest  commander  in  the 
country,  and  that  he  should  be  made  commander  in  chief. 
Up  to  this  time  the  grade  of  major  general  was  the  highest 
in  the  army;  but  in  February,  1864,  Congress  revived  the 
grade  of  lieutenant  general,  hitherto  held  by  George  Wash 
ington  only.1  It  was  meant  for  Grant,  and  in  March  he 
went  to  Washington  to  receive  his  new  honors.  From 
this  time  to  the  end  of  the  war  Grant  was  commander  in 
chief  of  all  the  armies  of  the  United  States. 

GRANT  IN  THE  WILDERNESS 

After  the  battles  around  Chattanooga,  in  November, 
1863,  little  fighting  was  done  till  the  following  spring. 
Meantime  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston  had  succeeded 

1  Winfield  Scott  was  lieutenant  general  by  brevet.  The  highest  military 
title,  "general,"  was  not  used  until  1866,  when  it  was  conferred  on  Grant. 
Later  it  was  conferred  on  Sherman,  and  after  his  death  on  Sheridan.  These 
three  alone  in  the  United  States  have  borne  this  title. 


GENERAL  U.  S.  GRANT 


372      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Bragg  as  Confederate  commander  in  the  West.  Grant, 
who  had  control  of  all  the  Union  armies,  decided  to  take 
charge  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  against  Lee,  while  he 
chose  Sherman,  his  ablest  subordinate,  to  command  in  the 
West. 

Battle  of  the  Wilderness  ;  Spottsylvania.  —  On  the  4th  of 
May,  1864,  Grant's  army,  numbering  150,000  men,  crossed 
the  Rapidan  River  in  Virginia  and  entered  a  dreary  region 
called  the  Wilderness.  Next  day,  Lee,  whose  army  num 
bered  about  half  that  of  Grant,  made  an  attack  and  for  two 
days  the  battle  roared  with  tremendous  fury.  On  the  sec 
ond  day  the  Union  general,  Wadsworth,  was  killed  and 
General  Longstreet,  on  the  other  side,  was  dangerously 
wounded.  The  Union  loss  was  17,000  men,  the  Confed 
erate  loss  being  probably  12,000. 

The  battle  of  Spottsylvania  even  surpassed  that  of  the 
Wilderness.  It  occurred  on  the  loth  and  i2th  of  May, 
the  armies  resting  on  the  nth.  It  was  on  the  nth  that 
Grant  sent  the  dispatch  to  Washington  that  he  would 
"  fight  it  out  on  this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer." 

No  more  terrific  fighting  was  ever  known  in  war  than 
that  of  May  1*2.  Not  a  tree  or  sapling  between  the  two 
armies  was  left  alive  and  standing.  One  tree  two  feet  in 
diameter  was  cut  down  by  musket  balls.  Had  this  battle 
continued  another  day  it  would  have  surpassed  Gettysburg. 
The  losses,  about  the  same  on  each  side,  footed  up  the 
frightful  total  of  36,000  men. 

Cold  Harbor;  Petersburg.  —  On  the  first  days  of  June 
Lee  took  up  a  very  strong  position  at  Cold  Harbor,  near 
which  the  battle  of  Gaines  Mills  between  Lee  and  Mc- 
Clellan  had  been  fought  two  years  before.  Grant  foolishly 
decided  to  attack  Lee  in  this  strong  defense.  He  did  so 
and  in  half  an  hour  lost  12,000  men,  while  Lee's  loss  did 


THE    SHENANDOAH   VALLEY  373 

not  reach  1000.     This  was  the  greatest  military  mistake 
ever  made  by  General  Grant. 

Grant  now  decided  to  cross  the  James  River  and  attack 
Petersburg.  He  did  this  and  was  repulsed  with  great 
loss.  He  then  settled  down  to  a  siege  and  his  army  did  little 
active  field  work  until  the  following  spring.  This  bloody, 
murderous  campaign  had  lasted  a  month  and  had  brought 
no  special  advantage  to  either  side.  The  name  of  Grant 
lost  much  of  its  magic  in  the  following  months.  Some 
even  favored  the  recall  of  McClellan  ;  but  Mr.  Lincoln 
made  no  move  to  this  end. 

The  Shenandoah  Valley.  —  Closely  associated  with  this 
campaign  was  that  of  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  led  by 
General  Philip  H.  Sheridan,  whom 
Grant  had  selected  for  the  purpose. 
Lee  had  sent  Jubal  A.  Early,  with 
15,000  veterans,  to  threaten  Wash 
ington.  On  July  10  and  n  Early 
was  but  few  miles  from  the  city  and 
in  sight  of  the  Capitol  dome.  Presi 
dent  Lincoln  was  not  in  the  least 
excited,  but  a  vessel  lay  in  the  river, 
without  his  knowledge,  to  take  him 

away   in    case   the    city    should   be 

J  J  PHILIP  H.  SHERIDAN 

captured.     Union  troops  soon  joined 

those  already  in  Washington,  whereupon  Early  turned 
up  the  valley  and  sent  General  McCausland  into  Penn 
sylvania,  who  burned  the  town  of  Chambersburg.  Sheri 
dan  was  then  sent  against  Early  whom  he  defeated  in 
a  battle  near  Winchester  and  in  another  at  Fisher's  Hill. 
Early  in  October  Sheridan  began  his  famous  raid  down 
the  Shenandoah  Valley  in  which  he  destroyed  everything 
that  an  enemy  might  use.  He  burned  2000  barns  and 


3/4      SCHOOL  HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

70    mills   filled    with  grain    and   drove   before  him  4000 
head  of  cattle. 

Early  had  followed  Sheridan  and  one  morning  at  Cedar 
Creek  he  fell  on  the  Union  army  at  break  of  day  when  the 
troops  were  sleeping  and  not  expecting  an  attack.  In  a 
short  time  the  Union  men  were  defeated  and  fleeing  for 
their  lives.  Sheridan  was  at  that  moment  at  Winchester, 
some  miles  away.  He  heard  the  cannonade  and  started 
on  his  famous  ride  to  Cedar  Creek.1  Meeting  his  fleeing 
men,  he  urged  them  to  halt,  reform  their  lines,  and  turn 
against  the  enemy.  The  men  threw  up  their  hats  and 
leaped  and  danced  for  joy  at  the  return  of  their  commander. 
They  obeyed  his  orders  and  within  a  few  hours  won  a  com 
plete  victory,  routing  and  almost  destroying  the  army  of 
Early  ;  and  thus  ended  the  war  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 

THE  ATLANTA  CAMPAIGN  ;  MOBILE 

Atlanta  was  an  important  railroad  center  and  base  of 
military  supplies  in  the  heart  of  Georgia.  When  Grant 
took  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  he  planned  for 
Sherman  a  campaign  against  Atlanta ;  but  to  reach  that 
city  Sherman  had  to  march  through  the  enemy's  country 
more  than  a  hundred  miles  and  to  cope  with  a  powerful 
army  under  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  who  had  succeeded  Bragg. 

From  Chattanooga  to  Atlanta.  —  Sherman  began  his  great 
march  from  Chattanooga  on  May  5,  1864,  the  day  after  Grant 
entered  the  Wilderness  in  Virginia.  Johnston  came  out  to 
meet  Sherman  and  for  some  weeks  there  was  heavy  skir 
mishing  nearly  every  day,  but  no  general  battle.  On  June 
14  General  Leonidas  Polk,  one  of  Johnston's  ablest  sub- 

1  It  was  this  ride  that  inspired  Thomas  Buchanan  Read's  poem  "Sheridan's 
Ride." 


FARRAGUT   AT   MOBILE 


375 


ordinates,  was  torn  to  pieces  by  a  cannon  ball.1  A  few 
weeks  later  the  Union  army  suffered  a  great  loss  in  the 
death  of  General  McPherson.  The  battle  of  Kenesaw 
Mountain  was  fought  late  in  June  and  Sherman  was 
defeated  with  a  loss  of  2000  men. 

On  the  i /th  of  July,  Jefferson  Davis  made  the  serious 
blunder  of  dismissing  Johnston  and  placing  General 
John  B.  Hood  at  the  head 
of  the  army.  Hood  was 
a  fearless  fighter ;  but 
as  a  strategist  he  was 
far  inferior  to  the  mas 
terly  Johnston.  As 
soon  as  Hood  had  con 
trol  of  the  army  he 
offered  Sherman  battle 
in  the  open  field  and  was 
twice  defeated  within 
the  first  week,  and 
still  again  in  the  fol 
lowing  week.  Seeing 
that  he  could  not  pos 
sibly  hold  Atlanta,  he 
escaped  with  his  army 
on  the  night  of  Sep 
tember  i,  and  on 
the  following  day  Sherman  took  possession  of  the  city. 

Farragut  at  Mobile.  — While  Sherman  was  tightening  his 
coils  about  Atlanta,  and  Sheridan  was  about  to  begin  his 
raid  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  Admiral  Farragut  was 

1  For  twenty  years  before  the  war  Polk  was  Episcopal  bishop  of  Louisiana. 
As  a  youth  he  had  graduated  at  West  Point,  but  afterward  devoted  himself  to 
the  church.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he  entered  the  Confederate  service. 


3/6      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

planning  the  capture  of  Mobile.  When  nearly  all  the 
Southern  ports  were  closed  to  the  outside  world,  Mobile 
Bay  was  still  open  to  blockade  runners,  and  the  govern 
ment  determined  to  close  it. 

Farragut   was   chosen  for  the  perilous  task.     With  a 


FARRAGUT  IN  MOBILE  BAY 


strong  fleet  he  entered  the  bay  and  fought  a  desperate 
battle  on  August  5.  Farragut  had  himself  tied  to  the  mast 
of  his  flagship  that  he  might  not  fall  to  the  deck  if  shot. 
Two  forts  had  to  be  silenced  and  a  Confederate  fleet 


must   be    defeated. 


The    fight   was    short 


and    terrific.1 


1  The  Union  vessel  Tecumseh  was  sunk  in  this  battle  with  113  men  on 
board.  When  the  vessel  was  about  to  sink  a  remarkable  incident  occurred. 
There  was  a  narrow  ladder,  the  only  possible  means  of  escape.  Captain 


THE    RENOMINATION   OF   LINCOLN  377 

Farragut  won  the  day  and  the  port  was  closed  to  the 
world  from  that  time  to  the  end  of  the  war.  The  city  of 
Mobile,  however,  was  held  by  the  Confederates  till  April, 
1865,  when  it  was  captured  by  General  Canby. 


THE  PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION  OF  1864 

In  the  midst  of  the  great  war  came  a  presidential  election, 
and  it  was  a  relief  to  the  people  for  a  season  to  turn  their 
eyes  from  the  scenes  of  carnage  to  the  familiar  scene  of 
the  battle  of  the  ballots. 

The  Renomination  of  Lincoln.  —  With  our  present  esti 
mate  of  Lincoln  it  seems  strange  that  in  1864  there  was  a 
great  opposition  to  his  renom^Mpn.  Among  his  leading 
opponents  were  Horace  Greeley,  Henry  Ward  Beecher, 
William  Cullen  Bryant,  and  many  members  of  Congress. 
This  faction  believed  that  Lincoln  was  too  slow  in  his 
management  of  the  war,  and  they  preferred  Chase,  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  as  their  candidate.  But  the 
masses  of  the  people  had  come  to  love  Lincoln  and  to  trust 
him,  and  when  it  was  seen  that  his  nomination  was  more 
than  probable  Chase  withdrew.  Lincoln  was  nominated 
with  little  opposition.  Andrew  Johnson  of  Tennessee  was 
named  for  Vice  President.  The  party  name  was  changed 
from  "  Republican  "  to  "  Union,"  to  accommodate  the  war 
Democrats  who  were  acting  with  the  party. 

Democratic  Nomination ;  the  Election.  —  The  Democrats 
met  late  in  August  and  nominated  General  McClellan. 

Craven,  her  commander,  and  his  pilot  met  at  the  foot  of  this  ladder.  The 
pilot  stepped  aside  that  the  captain  might  go  up  first  ;  but  the  captain  said, 
"  After  you,  pilot,"  and  stepped  back.  The  pilot  then  ran  up  the  ladder  to  the 
deck,  and  was  saved.  But  he  was  the  last;  the  ship  sank,  and  the  chivalrous 
Captain  Craven  went  down  with  his  crew  and  was  lost. 


3/8      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

The  platform  declared  the  war  a  failure  and  called  for  a 
convention  of  all  the  states  with  a  view  of  arranging  for 
peace  on  the  basis  of  a  restored  Union. 

For  many  weeks  up  to  this  time  there  was  a  general 
belief  that  Lincoln  would  be  defeated,  but  now  the  tide  set 
in  his  favor.  Vast  numbers  of  Northern  families  from 
which  a  father,  a  son,  or  a  brother  was  serving  in  the  ranks 
or  had  filled  a  soldier's  grave  could  not  agree  that  the  war 
was  a  failure.  The  Democratic  call  for  a  convention  of  all 
the  states  took  no  account  of  the  fact  that  but  a  few  months 
before  this  a  peace  conference  had  been  held  and  Jefferson 
Davis  had  declared  that  he  would  never  agree  to  peace 
except  on  the  basis  of  a  divided  Union. 

In  view  of  these  facts  Lincoln's  star  rose  steadily  till 
the  election,  when  he  again  carried  the  country  by  a  great 
majority. 

The  result  of  the  election,  with  the  recent  news  from 
Mobile,  from  Atlanta,  and  from  the  Shenandoah  Valley, 
gave  the  people  of  the  North  renewed  hope  for  the  restora 
tion  of  the  Union  and  the  downfall  of  slavery. 

FINAL  WORK  OF   THE  ARMIES 

Sherman's  March  to  the  Sea.  —  Sherman  remained  at 
Atlanta  for  several  weeks,  Hood  having  moved  north 
ward  into  Tennessee,  when,  on  November  15,  he  started  on 
his  historic  march  "  From  Atlanta  to  the  Sea."  With  sixty- 
two  thousand  men,  sixty-five  heavy  guns,  and  twenty-five 
hundred  wagons,  each  drawn  by  six  mules,  Sherman  began 
his  great  march.  The  army  made  a  swath  from  forty  to 
sixty  miles  wide,  destroying  railroads  and  other  property 
that  might  aid  the  Confederates.  The  soldiers  were  ordered 
to  spare  private  property,  except  what  was  needed  for  food, 


SHERMAN'S   MARCH   TO   THE   SEA 


379 


and  not  to  enter  private  houses  ;  but  they  did  not  always 
obey  the  order,  and  many  innocent  people  were  made  to 
suffer. 

The  army  met  with  little  opposition  and  by  the  middle 
of  December  it  came  in  sight  of  the  sea.     The  Confeder- 


GENERAL  W.  T.  SHERMAN 

ates  fled  from  Savannah,  and  Sherman  entered  it  on  the 
2  ist  of  December.  He  then  sent  a  dispatch  to  Presi 
dent  Lincoln,  "  I  beg  to  present  to  you,  as  a  Christmas 
gift,  the  city  of  Savannah,  with  one  hundred  and  fifty 
heavy  guns  and  twenty-five  thousand  bales  of  cotton." 
Thus  the  old  historic  city,  which  Oglethorpe  had  founded, 


380      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE    UNITED   STATES 

where  Pulaski  had  fallen,  came  again  into  the  hands  of  the 
Federal  government. 

Nashville.  —  General  Hood,  as  we  have  noticed,  had  led 
the  Confederate  army  back  into  Tennessee,  and  on  De 
cember  15  he  attacked  a  Union  force  at  Nashville  under 
General  Thomas,  the  Rock  of  Chickamauga.  Thomas 
was  one  of  the  ablest  commanders  of  the  war,  and  he 


SHERMAN'S  MARC 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


proved  it  by  the  battle  of  Nashville.  Hood  was  most 
thoroughly  defeated,  and  the  power  of  the  Confederacy 
was  now  destroyed  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 

Grant  before  Petersburg.  —  General  Grant  had  settled 
down  to  a  siege  of  Petersburg,  a  strong  fortification  a  few 
miles  south  of  Richmond  on  the  James,  in  the  summer  of 
1864.  As  the  autumn  and  winter  passed,  the  coils  of  his 
army  were  tightening  about  Richmond,  the  Confederate 


FALL   OF   RICHMOND  381 

capital.  In  February,  1865,  President  Lincoln  and  Secre 
tary  Seward  met  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  Vice  President 
of  the  Confederacy,  to  treat  for  peace ;  but  the  conference 
came  to  nothing.  Early  in  March  Lee  informed  President 
Davis  that  he  could  protect  the  capital  but  little  longer. 
On  April  i,  Sheridan  won  a  battle  at  Five  Forks,  a  few 
miles  from  Petersburg. 

Fall  of  Richmond.  —  On  Sunday,  April  2,  Grant  made  a 
general  attack  which  the  Confederates  met  as  only  brave  men 
could.  But  the  odds  against  them  were  too  great  and  before 
night  twelve  thousand  of  them  were  taken  prisoners.  On 
the  same  day,  as  Jefferson  Davis  sat  in  church,  he  received 
a  telegram  from  Lee  saying  that  Richmond  must  be  evacu 
ated  that  evening.  Davis  boarded  a  train  for  the  South.1 

As  the  news  of  the  coming  of  the  Union  troops  spread 
through  the  city  the  people  became  greatly  excited.  All 
social  order  was  destroyed,  and  thousands  of  people  ran 
through  the  streets,  not  knowing  what  to  do.  Nine  ships 
building  in  the  harbor  were  set  on  fire.  The  fire  spread 
to  the  city  and  seven  hundred  houses  were  soon  in  flames. 
On  April  3  the  Union  troops  entered  the  city  and  next 
day,  while  the  fires  were  still  burning,  President  Lincoln 
visited  it 

Surrender  of  Lee.  —  General  Lee  made  the  utmost  effort  to 
escape  with  his  army  southward  ;  but  at  every  turn  he  found 
Grant's  army,  which  had  almost  surrounded  his  own.  At 
length,  on  April  9,  when  escape  was  impossible  and  further 
resistance  suicidal,  Lee  raised  the  white  flag  and  surrendered 
his  army  to  Grant.  The  two  great  commanders  met  at  Appo- 
mattox  Court  House  and  arranged  the  terms  of  surrender. 

1  Mr.  Davis  was  captured  some  time  later  and  was  held  a  prisoner  for  two 
years,  when  he  was  released. 


382      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

General  Sherman,  after  his  great  march,  did  not  long 
remain  at  Savannah.  At  the  beginning  of  February  he 
started  northward  through  the  Carolinas  for  the  purpose 
of  joining  Grant,  and  bringing  the  war  to  a  close.  Before 
this  march  began,  however,  the  closing  of  the  port  of  Wil 
mington,  North  Carolina,  and  the  capture  of  Fort  Fisher, 
which  guarded  the  harbor,  was  decided  on.  This  was  ac 
complished  in  January.  Wilmington  was  the  last  opening 
of  the  South  to  the  outside  world,  and  its  capture  completed 
the  blockade  proclaimed  by  Lincoln  in  April,  1861. 

As  Sherman  moved  northward  the  Confederates  aban 
doned  Charleston  and  Columbia,  both  of  which  were  par 
tially  burned  to  the  ground.  When  Sherman  was  almost 
ready  to  cooperate  with  Grant,  he  was  confronted  by  John 
ston,  who,  after  Hood's  drastic  defeat  at  Nashville,  was 
again  in  command  of  the  Southern  army.  But  when  John 
ston  heard  that  Lee  had  surrendered  to  Grant,  he  knew 
that  his  hour  had  also  come.  He  sought  Sherman  and  the 
two  agreed  on  terms  of  surrender,  April  26.1  Soon  after 
this  two  small  Confederate  armies  farther  west  also  sur 
rendered  —  and  the  great  tragedy  of  the  Civil  War  was  at 
an  end. 

Death  of  President  Lincoln.  —  There  is  no  more  atro 
cious  crime  in  American  annals  than  the  assassination  of 
President  Lincoln,  which  occurred  on  April  14,  1865. 
After  a  day  of  toil  the  President  sought  diversion  by  at 
tending  the  theater,  and  while  sitting  in  a  private  box,  he 
was  shot  through  the  brain  by  John  Wilkes  Booth,  an 
actor.  The  audience  was  stupefied  by  the  appalling 
tragedy,  and  the  assassin,  brandishing  a  dagger,  cried  "  Sic 

1  Johnston  surrendered  about  thirty-seven  thousand  men.  Lee  had  sur 
rendered  to  Grant  but  twenty-eight  thousand.  Lee's  army  had  been  greatly 
reduced  in  the  closing  weeks  of  the  war. 


CHARACTER  OF  LINCOLN  383 

semper  tyrannis"  1  ran  down  a  back  stair,  and  made  his 
escape. 

At  the  same  time  Lewis  Payne  entered  the  house  of  Mr. 
Seward,  and  stabbed  the  secretary  several  times,  and  made 
his  escape.  A  plot  had  been  formed  to  kill  the  leading 
men  in  the  government  to  avenge  the  defeat  of  the  South. 
General  Grant  had  escaped  by  going  to  Baltimore  on  the 
afternoon  of  the  I4th. 

When  the  President  was  shot,  his  head  fell  forward,  but 
he  uttered  no  sound.  He  was  carried  to  a  house  across 
the  street,  where,  without  recovering  consciousness,  he  died 
early  the  next  morning.  The  people  mourned  their  great 
dead  as  never  before  in  American  history.  The  funeral 
train  passed  through  the  chief  cities  of  the  East  and  west 
ward  to  Springfield,  Illinois,  where  the  body  was  laid  to 
rest. 

Character  of  Lincoln.  —  It  is  now  agreed  by  almost  all 
classes  that  Abraham  Lincoln  was  the  greatest  of  American 
Presidents.  From  the  time  of  his  death  his  fame  has  been 
rising ;  he  is  now  regarded  as  probably  the  strongest  world 
figure  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Born  among  the  lowliest 
of  the  lowly,  trained  in  the  merciless  school  of  adversity 
and  want,  he  rose  in  public  life  until  he  became  the  lead 
ing  American  of  his  time.  Entering  upon  his  office  at  the 
moment  when  the  two  great  sections  of  the  country  were 
ready  to  grapple  in  deadly  conflict,  he  grasped  the  reins 
of  government  with  a  master  hand  ;  and  many  believe  that 
without  his  consummate  ability  the  Union  could  not  have 
been  saved.2 


1  Latin  for  "  So  always  with  tyrants."     Booth  was  afterward  shot,  and 
several  of  his  companions  were  hanged. 

2  Elson's  History,  p.  775. 

2C 


THE   ALABAMA   CLAIMS  385 

FOREIGN  RELATIONS;    THE  FINANCES 

In  addition  to  the  Trent  Affair,  our  foreign  relations 
during  the  war,  and  more  particularly  after  its  close,  were 
disturbed  by  two  other  incidents.  The  first  of  these  is 
known  as 

The  Alabama  Claims. — The  Atabama  was  a.  Confeder 
ate  vessel  built  at  Liverpool,  despite  the  protests  of  our 
minister  at  London.  She  began,  in  August,  1861,  a 
wonderful  tour  of  the  oceans  under  command  of  Raphael 
Semmes.  For  more  than  two  years  she  plowed  the  main 
on  her  mission  of  destruction,  capturing  in  all  sixty-nine 
American  ships,  which  with  their  cargoes,  were  worth 
$10,000,000. 

In  June,  1864,  we  find  the  Alabama  in  the  harbor  of 
Cherbourg,  France,  where  was  also  the  United  States 
war  vessel  Kearsarge,  commanded  by  Captain  John  A. 
Winslow.  Here  Semmes  challenged  Winslow  to  a  fight,  and 
the  two  vessels  swung  out  in  the  deep,  and  began  their 
duel  to  the  death.  In  an  hour  the  Alabama,  with  many  of 
her  devoted  crew,  had  sunk  beneath  the  waves. 

Nearly  a  score  of  Confederate  cruisers  were  also  built 
in  English  waters,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  the  United 
States  made  a  demand  that  Great  Britain  pay  heavy 
damages  for  permitting  the  breach  of  neutrality.  The 
settlement  will  be  noticed  on  a  later  page. 

Maximilian  in  Mexico.  —  The  other  important  foreign 
matter  was  the  attempt  of  France  to  establish  a  monarchy 
in  Mexico.  In  the  spring  of  1862  the  French  emperor  sent 
an  army  to  Mexico,  ostensibly  to  collect  debts  due  the 
French  ;  but  it  was  soon  discovered  that  the  real  object  was 
to  set  up  a  monarchy  on  the  ruins  of  the  Mexican  republic. 
The  Mexicans  were  subdued  by  midsummer,  1863,  and 

2C 


386      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF    THE   UNITED    STATES 

Maximilian,  the  Austrian  archduke,  was  made  emperor  of 
Mexico.  The  Mexicans  made  a  pretense  of  being  con 
tented  with  the  new  order.  The  French  army,  however, 
remained,  and  on  it  rested  the  security  of  the  throne. 

Now  all  this  was  galling  to  the  United  States,  as  a  flagrant 
infraction  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine ;  but  coming  in  the 
midst  of  the  Civil  War  when  our  hands  were  tied,  little  was 
done  to  protect  that  doctrine  till  the  close  of  the  war. 
Then  a  course  of  action  was  determined  on.  Secretary 
Seward  demanded  of  the  French  emperor  that  his  troops 
be  withdrawn  from  Mexico,  and  to  emphasize  the  demand 
General  Sheridan  was  sent  into  Texas  with  fifty  thousand 
veteran  troops.  The  emperor  clearly  understood  and  with 
drew  his  army.  Maximilian,  however,  remained,  in  the 
belief  that  the  Mexicans  would  be  willing  to  continue  as 
his  subjects.  In  this  he  was  sadly  in  error. 

Scarcely  was  the  army  withdrawn  when  the  people  rose 
against  their  monarch,  defeated,  captured,  and  put  him  to 
death ;  and  again  Mexico  became  a  republic. 

With  Germany  and  Russia  our  relations  during  the  war 
were  exceedingly  pleasant.  Not  only  was  the  German 
Confederation  in  full  sympathy  with  the  Union  cause,  but 
thousands  of  German-Americans  offered  their  lives  in 
defense  of  that  cause. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  WAR 

The  Cost  in  Men.  —  Our  Civil  War  was  the  greatest  of 
its  kind  in  human  history.  Of  the  Northern  armies  about 
110,000  men  were  killed  in  battle,  while  more  than  twice 
that  number  died  of  disease  or  accident.  If  the  losses  of 
the  South  were  proportionally  great,  the  war  cost  the 
nation  half  a  million  lives,  to  say  nothing  of  the  thou- 


THE   COST  IN    MONEY  387 

sands  who  returned  to  their  homes  with  maimed  bodies  or 
broken  health.  The  whole  number  of  men  enlisted  in  the 
North  was  2,773,400,  many  of  whom  were  reenlistments, 
and  the  highest  number  in  the  field  at  one  time  was  a  lit 
tle  more  than  1,000,000.  The  whole  number  of  enlist 
ments  in  the  South  was  probably  1,000,000,  though  no 
accurate  account  was  kept. 

Cost  in  Money. — At  the  beginning  of  the  war  the 
national  debt  was  a  little  more  than  $60,000,000.  Four 
years  later  it  was  $2,845,000,000.  But  this  enormous  in 
crease  represented  only  a  portion  of  the  war  expenses. 
To  it  must  be  added  the  income  of  the  government  during 
the  war,  nearly  $1,500,000  a  day;  the  separate  outlay  of 
the  states  and  cities,  probably  $500,000,000 ;  the  expense 
to  the  South,  of  which  no  accurate  account  was  kept ;  and 
the  incalculable  destruction  of  property.  The  total  cost  of 
the  war  no  doubt  exceeded  $10,000,000,000. 

In  various  ways  the  government  raised  large  sums  of 
money,  —  by  an  income  tax,  by  raising  the  tariff  on  im 
ports,  by  duties  on  manufacturing,  by  taxing  the  states 
directly,  and  by  stamp  taxes  in  many  forms.  It  also 
issued  paper  money,  called  "  greenbacks,"  to  the  amount 
of  $450,000,000,  and  these  were  made  legal  tender. 

Great  Commanders.  —  A  great  movement  will  usually 
bring  out  characters  who  might  otherwise  have  died 
unknown.  The  Civil  War  discovered  some  strong  com 
manders,  but  none  of  the  very  highest  order  —  none  that 
can  be  compared  with  Hannibal,  Caesar,  or  Napoleon. 
Grant  was  probably  the  most  remarkable  figure  brought 
to  the  front  by  the  war.  Though  not  a  strong  tactician, 
he  was  known  for  his  indomitable  pluck,  and  it  is  notable 
that  the  three  great  surrenders  —  at  Donelson,  Vicksburg, 
and  Appomattox  —  were  all  made  to  him. 


388     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

Next  to  Grant  was  Sherman,  then  Sheridan  ;  and  Thomas 
falls  little  below  either. 

On  the  Southern  side  Lee  must  be  named  as  the  ablest 
general,  and  some  believe  that  he  had  no  equal  in  the 
North.  The  brilliant  Stonewall  Jackson  was  a  man  of 
wonderful  power,  who  was  still  growing  until  his  last 
battle,  at  Chancellorsville.  Albert  Sidney  Johnston  was  at 
first  believed  to  be  the  ablest  commander  in  the  South, 
but  his  untimely  death  at  Pittsburg  Landing  ended  the 
opportunity  to  prove  his  powers.  One  of  the  Southern 
generals  of  note  was  born  in  the  North,  Pemberton,  a 
native  of  Connecticut,  while  two  of  the  strongest  com 
manders  of  the  North  —  Farragut  and  Thomas  —  were  of 
Southern  birth. 

Result  of  the  War. — The  Civil  War,  with  all  its  cost  in 
human  life  and  treasure,  brought  untold  blessings  to  the 
country.  It  eliminated  the  idea  of  forcible  disunion  and 
established  the  republic  on  a  secure  basis.  It  opened 
the  way  to  four  million  slaves  to  do  for  themselves  and 
to  make  the  best  of  their  opportunities.  It  removed  the 
cause  of  the  long,  distressing  quarrel  between  the  North 
and  the  South  and  opened  the  way  to  the  wonderful  devel 
opment  of  Southern  industries  that  has  since  been  inaugu 
rated.  The  people  of  the  South  were  deeply  sincere  and 
they  fought  with  true  American  valor ;  but  the  great  ma 
jority  of  them  now  see  that  disunion  would  have  been  a 
calamity  and  that  slavery  was  an  evil;  they  rejoice,  as  do 
the  people  of  the  North,  in  the  feeling  of  common  brother 
hood  that  now  exists  between  the  great  sections  of  the 
country,  and  they  are  as  proud  as  their  brethren  of  the 
North  of  our  vast  undivided  land. 


SUMMARY  389 


SUMMARY 

After  the  battle  of  Chickamauga  Rosecrans  retired  to  Chattanooga, 
and  a  few  weeks  later  General  Grant  was  sent  to  take  charge  of  the  army. 
After  being  defeated  at  Lookout  Mountain  and  at  Missionary  Ridge 
Bragg  retired  into  Georgia  for  the  winter.  Grant  was  then  made 
lieutenant  general  and  commander  in  chief  of  all  the  armies  of  the 
North. 

Grant  then  took  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  leaving  Sher 
man  at  the  head  of  the  army  in  the  West.  Grant  entered  the  Wilderness 
of  Virginia  in  May,  and  within  a  month  were  fought  the  great  battles  of 
the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania,  and  Cold  Harbor,  after  which  Grant  set 
tled  down  to  a  siege  of  Petersburg.  Meantime  Sheridan  drove  Early 
from  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 

While  Grant  was  in  the  Wilderness,  Sherman  was  marching  against 
Atlanta,  which  fell  into  his  hands  early  in  September.  In  August 
Admiral  Farragut,  after  a  desperate  battle,  gained  control  of  Mobile 
Bay. 

The  presidential  election  of  1864  resulted  in  the  reelection  of 
Lincoln,  though  at  first  there  was  great  opposition  in  his  own  party. 

The  final  work  of  the  armies  consisted  of  Sherman's  famous  march  to 
the  sea  and  his  movement  from  Savannah  northward,  and  in  the 
capture  of  Richmond  and  of  Lee's  army  by  General  Grant. 

President  Lincoln  was  assassinated  on  April  14,  1865. 

In  our  foreign  relations  the  Alabama  affair  and  the  setting  up  of  a 
monarchy  in  Mexico  by  the  French  attracted  chief  attention. 

The  chief  results  of  the  war  were:  i.  The  establishment  of  the 
Republic  on  a  secure  basis ;  2.  The  freeing  of  four  million  slaves ; 
3.  The  opening  of  the  way  to  Southern  industrial  progress  and  to  a 
kindlier  feeling  between  the  two  great  sections  of  the  country. 


CHAPTER   XXII 
RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  UNION 

THE  people  rejoiced  exceedingly  that  the  distressing  war 
was  over ;  but  the  serious  problem  of  how  to  reconstruct  the 
Union,  how  to  get  the  straying  Southern  sister  states  back 
into  the  family  circle,  was  yet  to  be  solved. 

EARLY  PLANS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION 

Long  before  the  close  of  the  war  President  Lincoln  de 
vised  a  plan  for  readmitting  the  seceded  states.  By  this 
plan  a  state  was  to  be  readmitted  when  one  tenth  of  its 
voters  should  take  an  oath  to  support  the  Constitution,  the 
Union,  and  the  laws  and  proclamations  regarding  slavery 
and  should  set  up  a  state  government. 

Congress  rejects  Lincoln's  Plan.  —  Many  of  the  leading 
men  in  Congress  were  not  in  favor  of  Lincoln's  plan. 
They  were  not  content  to  defeat  the  South  in  battle ;  they 
wished  to  humble  it  still  further,  and  when  Louisiana  and 
Arkansas  took  advantage  of  Lincoln's  plan  and  sent 
representatives  to  Congress,  they  were  rejected  by  that 
body. 

Soon  after  this  Congress  framed  a  reconstruction  bill, 
requiring  that  a  majority  of  the  voters  in  any  Southern 
state  must  take  an  oath  to  support  the  Constitution  and 
set  up  a  state  government  in  order  to  be  readmitted  to 
the  Union.  This  bill  was  sent  to  Mr.  Lincoln  on  July  4, 

390 


JOHNSON'S   PLAN    OF   RECONSTRUCTION          391 

1864,  the  last  day  of  the  session,  and  he  disposed  of  it 
by  a  pocket  veto.1 

The  rupture  between  the  President  and  Congress  was 
very  serious ;  neither  side  showed  signs  of  yielding.  The 
subject  of  reconstruction  was  left  to  rest  until  the  following 
spring.  On  April  1 1  Mr.  Lincoln,  in  his  last  public  speech, 
explained  his  plan  of 
reconstruction,  stating 
what  he  had  done  and 
why  he  had  done  it.  He 
also  declared  that  he  had 
some  new  announcement 
to  make  to  the  people  of 
the  South,  but  what  the 
announcement  was  to  be 
was  never  known.  Four 
days  later  the  great  war 
President  was  dead. 

Vice  President  Andrew 
Johnson  was  sworn  into 
the  great  office. 

At  first  it  seemed  prob- 
able  that  the  policy  of  the 

government  would  be  radically  changed,  as  in  the  two  in 
stances  where  a  Vice  President  had  succeeded  to  the  chief 
office.  But  Lincoln's  mild  plan  of  reconstruction  soon 
found  favor  in  Johnson's  eyes,  partially  no  doubt  through 
the  influence  of  Seward,  who  remained  secretary  of  state. 

1  The  Constitution  provides  that  a  congressional  bill  must  be  signed  or 
vetoed  by  the  President  within  ten  days  after  its  passage.  If  he  does  neither, 
it  will  become  a  law  without  his  signature.  This,  however,  does  not  apply 
when  Congress  adjourns  within  the  ten  days.  If  in  that  case  the  President 
withholds  his  signature,  the,  bill  does  not  become  a  law.  This  is  called  a 
pocket  veto. 


392      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Johnson's  plan  of  reconstruction  was  similar  to  that  of 
Lincoln  and  his  attitude  conciliatory  toward  the  South. 
Congress  was  not  in  session  and  Johnson  believed  that  he- 
had  the  power  to  restore  the  Southern  states  to  the  Union 
without  the  aid  of  Congress.  On  the  2Qth  of  May  he  issued 
his  great  amnesty  proclamation,  extending  pardon  to  almost 
the  entire  South,  certain  classes  being  excepted.  On  the 
same  day  he  appointed  a  provisional  governor  of  North 
Carolina  and  authorized  the  setting  up  of  a  government  in 
that  state.  In  a  short  time  similar  provision  was  made  for 
the  other  seceded  states,  except  for  those  that  had  set  up 
governments  under  Lincoln's  authority.  By  Johnson's  plan 
a  state  was  to  be  restored  to  the  Union  after  it  had  abol 
ished  slavery,  repudiated  any  debt  incurred  by  the  war, 
and  ratified 

The  Thirteenth  Amendment.  —  When  President  Lincoln 
issued  his  Emancipation  Proclamation,  he  intended  it  only 
as  a  preparation  for  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution, 
which  should  prohibit  slavery  from  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  In  his  message  of  December,  1864,  he  urged  the 
importance  of  such  an  amendment.  Within  the  coming 
year  both  Senate  and  House  adopted  an  emancipation 
amendment  by  large  majorities.  It  was  then  sent  to  the 
states,  and  the  necessary  three  fourths  of  them  having  rati 
fied,  it  was  proclaimed  on  December  18,  1865,  a  part  of  the 
Supreme  Law  of  the  land. 

This  thirteenth  amendment  abolished  slavery  forever  in 
the  United  States.1  This  was  the  first  amendment  to  be 
added  to  the  Constitution  in  sixty-one  years,  the  last  pre 
ceding  one  being  the  twelfth,  adopted  in  1804. 

1  It  abolished  slavery  in  the  border  states  which  had  not  been  included  in 
the  Emancipation  Proclamation.  Maryland,  however,  did  not  wait  for  the 
amendment.  She  freed  her  slaves  in  1864. 


THE   FOURTEENTH   AMENDMENT  393 

CONGRESSIONAL  RECONSTRUCTION 

When  Congress  met  in  December,  1865,  it  ignored  the 
work  of  reconstruction  by  President  Johnson.  The  Senate, 
led  by  Charles  Sumner,  and  the  House,  led  by  Thaddeus 
Stevens  of  Pennsylvania,  defied  and  offended  the  President. 
The  House  passed  a  motion,  without  debate  and  before  the 
annual  message  of  the  President  was  received,  to  appoint  a 
joint  committee  to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  seceded 
states.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  bitterest  quarrel 
between  President  and  Congress  in  the  history  of  our 
country. 

The  Fourteenth  Amendment.  —  The  President  refused  to 
bow  to  the  will  of  Congress.  On  the  other  hand  he 
denounced  that  body  in  public  speeches  because  it  refused 
to  admit  delegates  from  the  Southern  states.  In  March, 
1866,  he  vetoed  the  Civil  Rights  Bill  and  it  was  passed 
over  his  veto.  The  substance  of  the  bill  was  embodied 
in  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  which 
passed  Congress  in  June,  1866,  and  was  ratified  two  years 
later.  This  made  the  negro  a  citizen  and  made 


white  man's  equal  before  the  peHeral  lay/-. 
-  Congress  now  required  the  seceding  states  to  ratify  this 
amendment  in  order  to  get  back  into  the  Union.  Only  one 
of  them,  Tennessee,  did  so.  The  remaining  ten  rejected 
the  amendment.  Meantime  a  new  Congress  had  been 
elected,  in  November,  1866,  and  the  Johnson  party  was 
overwhelmingly  defeated.  Congress  then  seemed  to  feel 
that  the  people  approved  its  course,  and  its  dealings  with 
the  South  henceforth  were  drastic  and  merciless. 

The  Great  Reconstruction  Act  was  moved  in  the  House 
by  Thaddeus  Stevens,  in  February,  1867.  It  provided  that 
the  ten  states  not  yet  admitted  be  divided  into  five  military 


394     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES      * 

districts  and  that  an  officer  with  an  army  be  sent  into  each 
to  supplant  the  civil  government  that  Johnson  had  set  up. 
After  being  passed  over  the  President's  veto  this  law  went 
into  operation.  Within  a  year  and  a  half  after  the  military 
occupation  of  the  South  seven  of  the  ten  states  had  com 
plied  with  the  conditions  imposed  and  were  readmitted  into 
the  Union.  Three  states,  however,  Virginia,  Mississippi, 
and  Texas,  hesitated  and  thus  were  denied  the  privilege  of 
taking  part  in  the  presidential  election  of  1868,  and  they 
were  further  required  to  ratify  the  Fifteenth  Amendment. 
This  amendment,  which  became  a  part  of  the  Constitution 
in  1870,  was  intended  to  secure  to  the  negro  the  right  to 
vote,  and  as  a  permanent  means  of  protecting  himself.  The 
three  states  eventually  ratified  the  amendment,  complied 
with  all  the  conditions  imposed  by  Congress,  and  before 
the  close  of  1870  all  were  readmitted  to  the  Union. 

The  Carpetbaggers.  —  The  governments  set  up  in  the 
Southern  states  during  the  reconstruction  period  were  the 
most  corrupt  and  scandalous  in  the  history  of  America. 
The  old  leaders  were  not  permitted  to  take  part  in  the 
government;  the  poor  whites  and  negroes  were  unfit  to 
take  the  lead,  and  the  result  was  that  a  class  of  cor 
rupt  politicians,  packing  up  their  goods  in  a  carpetbag,  as 
it  was  said,  went  down  from  the  North  and  got  control 
of  the  state  governments.  In  a  short  time  they  had  run 
up  the  state  debts  to  an  alarming  degree.  In  Louisiana 
the  debt  was  increased  from  ten  to  fifty  million  dollars,  and 
the  carpetbag  record  in  the  other  states  was  similar.  The 
increase  indicated  no  public  improvements  —  only  theft. 
The  taxes  imposed  were  so  high  that  the  people  could  not 
pay  them  and  thousands  of  farms  were  sold  for  taxes. 

The  better  class  of  whites  stood  aghast  at  the  further 
impoverishment  of  their  states.  The  more  vicious  class 


THE   RACE   QUESTION  395 

formed  the  "  Ku  Klux  Klan,"  with  the  object  of  intimidat 
ing  the  black  voter. 

The  Race  Question.  —  The  carpetbag  governments,  to 
the  lasting  disgrace  of  the  Federal  government,  were  sus 
tained  by  the  army,  and  they  quickly  disappeared  on  the 
withdrawal  of  the  troops.  The  state  governments  then 
passed  immediately  into  the  hands  of  the  white  men.  This 
was  most  natural.  The  white  race  had  labored  for  centu 
ries  to  attain  self-government.  It  paid  ninety-nine  per  cent 
of  the  taxes.  Could  these  great  communities  be  turned  over 
to  a  penniless,  illiterate  race  who  knew  not  the  first  prin 
ciples  of  self-government  ?  Such  a  spectacle  has  never 
been  known  in  the  world's  history. 

We  are  not  in  sympathy  with  some  of  the  methods 
adopted  in  the  South  to  disfranchise  the  negroes  ;  but  it 
should  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  a  want  of  the  ballot 
that  retards  the  negro  of  the  South  :  it  is  the  want  of  ambi 
tion.  The  black  man  can  become  equal  to  the  white  man  in 
the  government  of  the  South  in  one  way  only,  and  that 
is  by  becoming  an  equal  force  in  civilization. 

IMPEACHMENT  AND  TRIAL  OF  PRESIDENT  JOHNSON 

The  most  important  trial  ever  held  in  the  United  States 
was  the  trial  of  Andrew  Johnson  by  the  Senate  in  the 
spring  of  1868,  after  his  impeachment  by  the  House.  The 
strife  between  the  President  and  Congress  that  began  in 
December,  1865,  reached  a  crisis  in  1868. 

The  Tenure  of  Office  Act  was  passed  over  the  President's 
veto  in  March,  1867.  The  Constitution  provided  that 
important  appointments  by  the  President  must  be  ratified 
by  the  Senate,  but  such  officials  could  be  removed  by  the 
President  alone.  The  Tenure  of  Office  Act  deprived  the 


396      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

President  of  this  power  of  dismissing  his  own  appointees, 
without  the  consent  of  the  Senate. 

Johnson,  on  becoming  President,  had  retained  the  Cabinet 
of  Lincoln.  Some  of  the  members  who  sympathized  with 
Congress  in  its  fight  with  Johnson  had  afterward  left  the 
Cabinet;  but  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  the  secretary  of  war, 
though  he  condemned  the  President's  course,  refused  to 
resign.  In  August,  1867,  the  President  suspended  Mr. 
Stanton  from  office,  but  when  the  Senate  met  in  December 
it  did  not  approve  Johnson's  action  and  Stanton  took  his 
place  again  in  the  Cabinet.  This  angered  Johnson  beyond 
endurance  and  in  February,  1868,  he  removed  Stanton  in 
defiance  of  the  Senate. 

The  Impeachment.  —  The  President  had  made  enemies 
in  the  House  as  well  as  in  the  Senate,  and  on  the  same  day 
that  Johnson  dismissed  Stanton,  Thaddeus  Stevens  brought 
before  the  House  a  resolution  that  "  Andrew  Johnson, 
President  of  the  United  States,  be  impeached  of  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanors."  1 

This  passed  the  House  a  few  days  later  by  126  to  47, 
and  thus  the  President  of  the  United  States  for  the  first 
and  only  time  in  our  history  was  called  to  stand  trial  before 
the  Senate. 

The  Great  Trial.  —  It  was  on  the  3Oth  of  March,  1868, 
that  the  historic  trial  of  the  President  of  the  United  States 
began  in  the  Senate  chamber.  Salmon  P.  Chase,  who  had 
become  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  presided  at 
the  trial.  The  senators  composed  the  jury.  The  members 
of  the  House  were  admitted  to  the  Senate  chamber  and 
certain  chosen  leaders  among  them  presented  the  accusa- 

1  The  sole  power  of  impeachment  rests  with  the  House,  and  after  an  im 
peachment  (which  resembles  an  indictment  by  a  Grand  Jury)  the  official 
impeached  must  stand  trial  before  the  Senate. 


THE   GREAT   TRIAL  397 

tions  against  the  President,  the  chief  of  which  was  that  he 
had  violated  the  Tenure  of  Office  Law  in  dismissing  Mr. 
Stanton.  Mr.  Johnson's  lawyers  offered  to  prove  that  one 
object  in  dismissing  Stanton  was  to  put  the  law  itself  on 
trial  and  test  its  constitutionality ;  but  this  evidence  was 
not  admitted.  Nothing  was  plainer  than  the  fact  that  the 
eminent  jury  was  prejudiced  against  the  accused. 

However,  when  it  came  to  a  vote,1  it  was  found  that 
seven  of  the  Republican  senators  voted  in  favor  of  the 
President,  and  these,  with  the  eight  Democrats  and  four 
Independents,  were  exactly  enough  to  save  him  from  con 
viction.  There  were  fifty-four  senators  and  two  thirds,  or 
thirty-six,  were  required  for  conviction.  But  only  thirty- 
five  voted  against  the  President,  and  nineteen  in  his  favor. 
Thus  he  escaped  by  a  single  vote.  Had  the  trial  gone 
against  him  he  would  have  been  deposed  from  his  office 
and  Senator  Benjamin  Wade  of  Ohio,  the  president  of  the 
Senate,  would  have  filled  the  unexpired  term  —  a  little  less 
than  ten  months.2 

Stanton,  who  had  held  to  his  Cabinet  position  during 
the  trial,  now  resigned  the  office.  Since  his  appointment 
by  Lincoln  in  1862,  Stanton  had  been  secretary  of  war, 
and  a  more  fearless,  able,  uncorruptible  secretary  never 
filled  the  office ;  but  in  this  contest  with  Johnson  he  was 
clearly  in  the  wrong. 

It  is  now  agreed  by  all  classes  that  Johnson's  conviction 
and  deposition  would  have  been  an  unfortunate  precedent. 
His  real  offense  was,  not  the  removal  of  Stanton,  but  the 
continued  exasperating  opposition  to  the  party  that  had 

1  The  voting  began  on  the  i6th  of  May. 

2  Wade  thus  became  one  of  the  three  men  in  our  history  to  come  each 
within  one  vote  of  being  elected  President  of  the  United  States  and  yet  miss 
the  prize.     The  other  two  were  Aaron  Burr  and  Samuel  J.  Tilden. 


398     SCHOOL  HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED    STATES 

given  him  power ;  and,  as  he  could  not  be  arraigned  on 
such  a  charge,  he  was  arraigned  on  a  technicality  which, 
in  ordinary  times,  would  have  attracted  little  attention. 
It  was  gratifying  to  the  country  that  the  great  trial  had 
caused  no  popular  uprising  and  no  great  disturbance  in 
the  business  world. 

SUMMARY 

The  problem  of  reconstruction  was  a  difficult  one  because  history 
furnished  no  precedent  and  because  the  President  and  Congress  did 
not  agree  on  a  plan  to  be  adopted. 

President  Lincoln,  Mr.  Seward,  and  a  few  other  leaders  favored  a 
mild,  conciliatory  course  in  dealing  with  the  South.  The  majority  in 
Congress,  led  by  Sumner  and  Stevens,  were  harsh  and  less  magnanimous 
in  their  attitude  toward  the  South. 

Johnson,  succeeding  Lincoln,  adopted  the  same  mild  measures.  He 
organized  governments  in  the  South;  but  Congress,  on  meeting  in 
December,  1865,  refused  to  accept  the  work  of  Johnson. 

In  February,  1867,  a  bill  was  passed  to  divide  the  seceded  states  into 
five  military  districts  and  to  send  an  officer  with  an  army  into  each. 

Three  years  later  all  the  seceded  states  had  reentered  the  Union. 
Meantime  corrupt  carpetbag  governments  had  created  enormous  debts 
in  the  Southern  states. 

In  February,  1868,  the  President  was  impeached  by  the  House  for 
dismissing  Secretary  Stanton  in  violation  of  the  Tenure  of  Office  Law. 
In  the  trial  by  the  Senate  he  was  acquitted. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 
RECUPERATING  YEARS 

THE  ELECTION  OF  1868 

The  Republican  Convention  met  in  Chicago  before  the 
trial  of  Johnson  had  ended.  It  had  but  one  choice  for 
the  head  of  the  ticket  and  that  was  General  U.  S.  Grant, 
who  had  won  first  honors  on  the  battlefield.  For  Vice 
President  Schuyler  Colfax  was  named. 

The  platform  adopted  provided  in  substance  for  the 
payment  of  the  public  debt  in  coin.  This  had  a  significant 
meaning,  for  coin  had  long  ceased  to  circulate  and  the 
paper  money  afloat  was  still  far  below  the  par  value  of 
gold  and  silver. 

The  Democratic  Convention  pronounced  for  the  payment 
of  the  war  debt  in  "  legal  money,"  which  meant  green 
backs,  and  it  pronounced  Republican  reconstruction  "revo 
lutionary  and  void."  This  no  doubt  lost  the  party  many 
votes,  as  the  people  were  tired  of  the  agitation  and  were 
longing  for  harmony  on  all  the  old  war  questions. 

Grant  and  Colfax  were  elected;  but  the  magnitude  of 
the  Democratic  vote  was  a  surprise  to  all.  The  Democrats 
carried  three  Northern  states,  including  New  York,  while 
Grant's  majorities  in  several  others  were  very  small.  Six 
of  the  states  that  had  seceded  were  carried  by  the  Repub 
licans.  The  election  showed  that  the  Democratic  party 
had  not  been  destroyed  by  the  war,  and  that  it  was  again 
a  powerful  rival  to  the  Republican  party  and  had  taken 
a  new  lease  of  life. 

399 


400      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED  STATES 

Troubles  in  the  South.  —  When  Grant  became  President, 
the  reconstruction  period,  which  we  have  noticed,  was 
drawing  to  a  close  ;  but  election  troubles  continued  in  the 
South  for  some  years  longer  and  the  President  was  often 
called  on  to  quell  riots  and  decide  election  contests.  It 
was  at  this  time  (1869-1871)  Congress  made  laws  to  curb 
the  Ku  Klux  Klan  and  proposed  the  Fifteenth  Amendment, 
which  was  intended  to  secure  forever  to  the  negro  his 
right  to  vote.  This  was  pronounced  a  part  of  the  Consti 
tution  in  March,  1870. 

The  Pacific  Railroad.  —  The  great  industrial  event  of  the 
period  was  the  completion  in  1869  of  the  first  railroad 
across  the  continent  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  great  West 
was  rapidly  filling  with  settlers.  Under  the  Homestead 
Act  of  1862  nearly  thirty  million  acres  were  settled  in  ten 
years.  A  railroad  to  the  far  West  became  a  necessity. 
As  early  as  1862  Congress  had  granted  a  company  a 
charter  to  the  end  that  the  work  of  constructing  a  railroad 
across  the  continent  be  begun.  Other  companies  were 
chartered  later ;  the  work  was  begun  at  Sacramento  and  at 
Omaha.  After  years  of  toil  of  thousands  of  men,  two 
companies  of  workmen  met  at  a  point  in  Utah ;  the  last 
rail  was  laid  with  impressive  ceremonies,  and  the  great 
work  of  joining  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  by  rail  was 
completed. 

The  government  had  given  many  millions  of  dollars  to 
these  companies,  besides  a  great  deal  of  land  along  the 
route,  and  this  in  later  years  caused  much  dissatisfaction. 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS  ;   TREATY  OF  WASHINGTON 

We  have  noticed  the  career  of   the  reckless  Alabama 
and    her   reckless    sisters    on  the  sea.      Our   minister  at 


THE  JOINT   HIGH    COMMISSION  401 

London  had  protested  in  vain  against  the  building  of 
Confederate  cruisers  in  British  waters.  In  1865  the  British 
government  made  this  decisive  statement :  — 

"  Her  Majesty's  government  must  decline  either  to  make 
reparation  and  compensation  for  the  captures  made  by  the 
Alabama  or  to  refer  the  question  to  any  foreign  state." 

This  did  not  settle  the  matter  by  any  means.  Secretary 
Seward  made  a  list  of  the  claims  for  which  the  British 
government  would  be  held  responsible.  In  his  annual 
message  of  1870  President  Grant  referred  to  the  matter 
in  such  a  way  as  to  convince  the  British  public  that  there 
was  something  serious  between  the  two  countries. 

The  Joint  High  Commission.  —  The  British  ministry  was 
moved  to  speedy  action  by  the  President's  message.  It 
proposed  a  Joint  High  Commission  to  sit  at  Washington  to 
discuss  the  difficulties,  and  the  offer  was  accepted.  This 
commission,  composed  of  eminent  men  of  both  countries, 
was  soon  appointed.  It  sat  in  Washington  for  two  months, 
in  the  spring  of  1871,  and  brought  forth  the  Treaty  of 
Washington,  which  was  soon  ratified  by  both  nations. 

This  treaty  provided  for  the  settlement  of  the  Alabama 
claims  by  a  tribunal  of  five  men  who  were  to  meet  for  the 
purpose  at  Geneva,  Switzerland.  It  provided  also  for  the 
settlement  of  the  fisheries  dispute  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  and  for  the  fixing  of  the  northwestern  boundary 
of  the  United  States.1 

The  Geneva  Award.  —  The  five  men  who  were  to  settle 
the  Alabama  claims  met  at  Geneva  in  December,  1871, 
and  continued  the  sessions  for  nine  months.  Charles 
Francis  Adams  represented  America,  and  Sir  Alexander 

1  This  boundary  dispute  was  referred  to  the  emperor  of  Germany,  who 
decided  in  favor  of  the  United  States,  giving  us  a  group  of  small  islands  which 
had  been  claimed  by  both  countries. 

2D 


402      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Cockburn,  lord  chief  justice  of  England,  represented  the 
British.  The  other  three  were  disinterested  parties. 

The  decision  was  that  the  British  government  had  failed 
in  its  neutral  obligations  and  that  it  pay  the  United  States 
$15,500,000. 

The  British  public  was  greatly  displeased  with  the  deci 
sion,  but  the  ministry  accepted  it,  paid  the  money,  and  the 
vexed  question  was  settled.  The  result  was  a  great  victory 
for  arbitration,  for  settling  international  disputes  without 
war. 

THE  LIBERAL  REPUBLICAN  MOVEMENT 

General  Grant  had  won  high  honor  on  the  battlefield ; 
but  he  was  not  well  fitted  for  the  duties  of  the  great 
office  that  he  now  filled.  He  was  wanting  in  executive 
ability.  He  was  honest,  but  had  not  the  capacity  to  watch 
and  curb  the  wily  politician  in  search  of  plunder. 

As  the  next  election  drew  near  it  was  evident  that  the 
majority  of  his  party  favored  nominating  Grant  for  a  second 
term.  But  there  was  a  considerable  element  that  opposed 
giving  him  a  second  te.m,  in  the  belief  that  his  want  of 
capacity  was  the  chief  cause  of  the  demoralization  in  gov 
ernment  circles. 

This  faction  of  the  Republican  party  was  led  by  such 
men  as  Charles  Francis  Adams  and  Horace  Greeley  of  New 
York  and  Thomas  Ewing  and  Salmon  P.  Chase  of  Ohio. 
When  it  was  seen  that  the  renomination  of  Grant  was 
assured,  this  faction  broke  away  from  the  party,  named 
themselves  Liberal  Republicans,  and  called  a  national  con 
vention  to  meet  in  Cincinnati. 

Nomination  of  Greeley.  —  At  this  convention  there  was 
a  tacit  understanding  that  its  candidates  should  be  named 


EARLY  CAREER  OF  GREELEY         403 

by  the  Democrats.  Horace  Greeley,  the  great  New  York 
editor,  was  chosen  to  head  the  ticket,  and  B.  Gratz  Brown 
of  Missouri  was  nominated  for  second  place. 

The  naming  of  Greeley  was  stunning  to  the  Democrats. 
Any  other  candidate  would  have  suited  them  better.  For 
many  years  Greeley  had  been  a  bitter  opponent  of  the 
Democratic  party  and  scarcely  was  there  a  leader  in  the 
party  that  had  not  felt  the  stings  of  his  caustic  pen.  But 
as  the  Democrats  could  not  hope  to  win  except  by  joining 
with  the  Liberals,  they  ratified  the  Liberal  candidates  in 
their  own  convention  held  in  Baltimore  in  July. 

Early  Career  of  Greeley.  —  The  son  of  a  farmer,  Horace 
Greeley  was  brought  up  among  the  hills  of  New  Hampshire. 
While  still  a  very  young  boy,  he  resolved  to  become  a 
journalist,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen  made  a  long  journey  to 
a  town  in  Vermont  where  a  newspaper  was  published. 
Finding  employment  with  the  editor,  it  was  not  long  until 
he  was  writing  editorials,  the  best  the  paper  had  ever  con 
tained.  A  few  years  later  we  find  Greeley  in  Erie,  Penn 
sylvania,  working  in  a  newspaper  office.  As  he  neared 
manhood  he  resolved  to  launch  out  in  the  great  world  and 
make  the  best  of  his  talents.  He  went  to  the  city  of  New 
York,  traveling  on  foot  and  by  canal  boat.  After  years  of 
toil,  of  success  and  failure,  Greeley  became  the  leading 
newspaper  man  in  New  York  or  the  nation,  and  to  this  day 
he  is  regarded  as  the  greatest  journalist  America  has  ever 
produced. 

The  campaign  was  not  very  dignified.  The  Liberal 
orators  rung  many  changes  on  Grant's  incapacity  and  the 
corrupt  carpetbag  governments  of  the  South.  The  Grant 
supporters  declared  that  if  Greeley  were  elected,  it  would 
be  dangerous  to  the  country  to  turn  the  government  over 
to  the  unreformed  Democracy. 


404      SCHOOL   HISTORY    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

Greeley  was  hopeful  almost  to  the  end.  But  in  fact  many 
Liberals,  finding  themselves  in  Democratic  company,  has 
tened  back  to  the  Republican  fold  before  election  day  ;  and 
many  old-time  Democrats,  refusing  to  support  Greeley, 
remained  away  from  the  polls.  The  result  was  a  great 
victory  for  Grant.  Mr.  Greeley,  broken  in  health  and  spirits, 
died  soon  after  the  election  and  before  the  meeting  of  the 
electoral  college. 

GRANT'S  SECOND  TERM 

Demoralization  in  Public  Life.  —  The  great  victory  of 
Grant  seemed  to  lead  politicians  to  disregard  the  charges 
of  corruption,  and  the  next  four  years  were  the  most  de 
moralizing  in  the  history  of  the  government.  General 
Grant  was  not  a  good  judge  of  character  and  the  political 
adventurer  too  often  gained  his  ear. 

The  most  notable  scandal  of  the  time  was  that  known 
as  the  Credit  Mobilier  Case.  The  Credit  Mobilier  was  a 
corporation  engaged  in  western  railroad  building.  It 
received  large  favors  from  Congress,  after  which  it  was 
found  that  many  members  of  Congress  held  stock  in  the 
company.  This  was  highly  discreditable  and  many  repu 
tations  were  blasted  when  the  facts  were  revealed. 

Another  scandal  was  caused  by  the  "Whisky  Ring," 
which  was  exposed  by  Mr.  Bristow,  the  sturdy  secretary 
of  the  treasury.  In  various  Western  towns  the  manufac 
turers  of  whisky  bribed  the  government  officials  and  thus 
were  enabled  to  sell  their  product  without  paying  the 
government  revenue.  Some  $4,000,000  were  stolen  in  this 
way.  Many  were  arrested,  but  few  punishments  followed. 

Even  the  secretary  of  war,  Mr.  Belknap,  was  impeached 
by  the  House  for  fraudulent  practices,  but  resigned  from 
the  Cabinet  before  he  could  be  tried  by  the  Senate. 


NATIONAL  FINANCES  405 

Indian  affairs  were  sadly  mismanaged,  and  serious 
Indian  troubles  in  the  Northwest  were  due  chiefly  to 
this  fact. 

In  1873  General  Canby,  who  had  been  sent  to  quiet  the 
Modocs  in  Oregon,  was  assassinated  while  under  a  flag  of 
truce. 

In  1876  a  most  disastrous  Indian  battle  took  place  on  the 
Little  Big  Horn  River  in  Montana.  General  George  A. 
Custer  was  sent  with  about  three  hundred  men  to  remove 
a  band  of  Sioux.  In  a  desperate  battle  with  a  thousand 
of  the  red  warriors  Custer  and  his  whole  band  were 
killed. 

National  Finances.  —  Every  schoolboy  or  schoolgirl  knows 
something  about  money  and  its  uses  ;  but  the  great  subject 
of  finance,  and  how  the  nation  provides  the  people  with 
money,  is  too  difficult  for  young  people.  We  shall  touch 
the  subject  but  slightly  here. 

The  government  made  many  blunders  during  and  after  the 
war  ;  but  in  redeeming  the  paper  money  it  did  nobly.  The 
large  issues  of  paper  money  had  driven  gold  and  silver  out 
of  circulation  ;  but  the  government  resolved  to  redeem  all 
in  coin  and  it  carried  out  this  purpose,  though  the  resump 
tion  of  specie  payments  (that  is,  the  making  of  a  paper 
dollar  equal  to  a  dollar  in  coin)  was  not  brought  about  till 
1879. 

The  great  public  debt,  amounting  to  $2,800,000,000  at 
the  close  of  the  war,  was  reduced  by  a  thousand  million 
dollars  by  1872.  In  July,  1870,  a  law  was  passed  to 
refund  the  public  debt  at  a  lower  rate  of  interest ;  that  is, 
to  pay  off  the  bonds  bearing  six  per  cent  and  issue  others 
at  four  or  five  per  cent.  By  this  means  the  government 
saved  many  millions  a  year. 

In  1873  a  law  was  passed  to  drop  the  standard  silver 


406      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

dollar  from  the  list  of  coins  ;  but  as  this  caused  much  dis 
satisfaction,  the  silver  dollar  was  later  restored.  In  1875 
a  law  was  passed  by  which  not  less  than  two  million  and 
not  more  than  four  million  silver  dollars  a  month  were  to 
be  coined. 

The  Panic  of  1873.  —  During  the  war  when  the  issue  of 
greenbacks  made  money  plentiful,  the  people  got  into  the 
habit  of  spending  it  freely.  And  after  the  war  when  much 
of  this  money  was  withdrawn  from  circulation,  they  kept  in 
their  old  habits  of  spending  money  freely  —  until  the  crash 
came.  Great  business  enterprises  were  undertaken  on 
borrowed  capital ;  hundreds  of  miles  of  needless  railroads 
were  built  in  the  unpeopled  West.  The  panic  began  with 
the  failure  of  Jay  Cooke  and  Company,  a  great  banking 
house  of  Philadelphia.  Hundreds  of  business  failures 
followed,  and  it  was  several  years  before  the  financial  and 
industrial  world  regained  its  normal  condition. 

A  Political  Reaction.  —  The  party  in  power,  guilty  or  not 
guilty,  is  always  blamed  for  a  panic.  The  Democrats  were 
prompt  to  blame  the  Republicans  for  the  panic  of  1873, 
and  on  this  account  and  on  account  of  the  many  scandals 
in  public  life  they  caught  the  ear  of  the  people  and  swept 
the  country  in  the  congressional  election  of  1874.  In  the 
House  a  Republican  majority  of  more  than  a  hundred  was 
replaced  by  a  Democratic  majority  almost  as  great. 

The  Centennial.  —  As  the  hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
nation's  birth  approached  it  was  decided  to  celebrate  the 
event  by  holding  a  centennial  exhibition,  and  the  place 
chosen  was  Philadelphia,  where  the  great  Declaration  of 
1776  had  been  made.  This  city  furnished  an  admirable 
site  in  Fairmount  Park,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  wind 
ing  Schuylkill. 

The  nations  of  the  world  were  invited  to  take  part,  and 


A    DISPUTED    PRESIDENTIAL   ELECTION 


407 


thirty-three  did  so  —  all  the  civilized  nations  except  Greece. 
Several  hundred  buildings  large  and  small  were  erected, 
the  largest  being  the  Main  Building,  which  covered  twenty 
acres.  The  chief  figures  at  the  opening  were  President 
Grant  and  Dom  Pedro  II,  emperor  of  Brazil. 

The  centennial,  though  not  financially  successful,  proved 
a  great  stimulus  in  the  advancing  of  art,  science,  and 
commerce.  The  American  people,  in  preparing  a  great 
continent  for  civilized 
life,  in  building  cities 
and  railroads,  had  been 
painfully  practical  ar>d 
had  neglected  the  re 
finements  that  charac 
terize  the  European 
countries.  The  foreign 
exhibits  gave  them  a 
needed  lesson  in  art 
and  grace,  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Euro 
pean  was  benefited  by 
his  contact  with  the 
sleepless  activity  of 
the  Americans. 

A  Disputed  Presiden 
tial  Election.  —  Twice 
in  our  history  (in  1800 

and  in  1824)  did  the  electoral  college  fail  to  choose  a 
President,  but  only  once  has  there  been  a  disputed  presi 
dential  election  — that  of  1876. 

The  Republicans  had  expected  to  nominate  James  G. 
Blaine  of  Maine,  who  had  become  almost  the  idol  of  the 
party ;  but  a  certain  element  of  the  party  regarded  him 


RUTHKRFORD   B.    HAYES 


408      SCHOOL    HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 


with  distrust,  and  the  convention  chose  Rutherford  B.  Hayes 
of  Ohio.  William  A.  Wheeler  of  New  York  was  chosen 
for  second  place.  Mr.  Hayes  had  been  a  brave  soldier 
and  three  times  governor  of  Ohio,  but  he  was  not  among 
the  strong  leaders  of  the  party. 

The  Democrats,  for  the  first  time  since  the  passing  of 
Douglas,  enjoyed  the  leadership  of  a  great  man  —  Samuel 
J.  Tilden  of  New  York.  Mr.  Tilden  had  done  the  nation 

a  great  service  in  unearth 
ing  the  corruptions  of  the 
Tweed  Ring  of  New  York 
and  had  been  governor  of 
New  York  State. 

The  one  campaign  cry  of 
the  Democrats  was  Reform. 
The  newspapers  and  orators 
of  the  party  joined  in  the 
one  widespread  call  for 
reform  in  the  public  service. 
The  Republicans  could  not 
raise  a  counter  cry  of  corrup 
tion  because  the  Democrats 
had  not  been  in  power  for  sixteen  years.  But  they  appealed 
to  sectional  prejudice.  They  declared  that  if  the  Demo 
crats  succeeded  to  power,  the  Southern  war  debt  would 
be  paid  and  perhaps  the  black  man  would  be  reenslaved. 
The  election  was  very  close,  but  no  one  was  prepared 
for  the  long  and  bitter  contest  that  followed.  Mr.  Tilden 
had  received  a  popular  majority  of  a  quarter  of  a  million 
votes,  but  the  Republicans  disputed  his  supposed  election 
in  the  electoral  college.  A  long  contest  continued  through 
the  winter.  The  danger  of  war  was  serious,  and  only  the 
inborn  love  of  the  American  people  for  peace  and  order 


SAMUEL  J.  TILDEN 


THE   ALABAMA   CLAIMS  409 

saved  the  country.  At  length  it  was  decided  that  an 
Electoral  Commission  of  fifteen  men  be  appointed  to  decide 
the  election.  This  commission, '  composed  of  five  men 
from  each  house  of  Congress  and  five  from  the  Supreme 
Court,  decided  that  Hayes  should  receive  the  electors  in 
dispute.  This  decision  gave  Tilden  one  hundred  and 
eighty-four  votes  to  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  for 
Hayes,  who  therefore  became  President,  and  the  great 
question  was  settled. 

SUMMARY 

The  election  of  1868  resulted  in  the  success  of  the  Republicans,  who 
chose  General  Grant  for  President,  defeating  Horatio  Seymour,  the 
Democratic  candidate. 

The  Pacific  Railroad,  completed  in  1869,  was  the  first  transcontinental 
railroad,  and  it  did  much  toward  the  development  of  the  West. 

The  Alabama  Claims  were  settled  by  a  tribunal  that  was  provided 
for  in  the  Treaty  of  Washington.  This  tribunal  met  at  Geneva,  Swit 
zerland,  and  decided  that  England  should  pay  the  United  States 
$15,500,000  (1872). 

The  Liberal  Republicans  were  a  faction  of  the  Republican  party  that 
opposed  Grant's  reelection.  They  joined  with  the  Democrats  and  sup 
ported  Horace  Greeley  for  President.  Mr.  Greeley  was  defeated  and 
Grant  was  given  a  second  term. 

Corrupt  practices  in  public  life  were  widespread,  and  this,  with  the 
panic  of  1873,  led  to  a  political  reaction  in  1874.  The  Democrats  won 
the  House  that  year  by  a  large  majority. 

In  1876  the  Centennial  celebration  of  the  nation's  birth  was  held  in 
Philadelphia. 

The  presidential  election  of  1876  resulted  in  a  long  dispute  between 
the  rival  parties,  the  candidates  being  R.  B.  Hayes  and  S.  J.  Tilden. 
At  length  an  Electoral  Commission  decided  in  favor  of  Mr.  Hayes. 


CHAPTER    XXIV 
INDUSTRIAL  PROGRESS 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  HAYES 

PRESIDENT  HAYES  was  a  sincere  man  not  without  ability. 
Soon  after  he  became  President  he  withdrew  the  troops 
from  the  three  Southern  states  —  South  Carolina,  Florida, 
and  Louisiana  —  which  had  been  under  military  rule  since 
the  war,  and  for  the  first  time  since  the  firing  on  Fort 
Sumter  the  South  was  left  to  take  care  of  itself.  For  the 
first  time  in  sixteen  years  the  people  enjoyed  a  season  of 
political  rest. 

Mr.  Hayes  chose  William  M.  Evarts  secretary  of  state, 
and  John  Sherman  secretary  of  the  treasury.  Mr.  Sher 
man  proved  himself  a  great  financier.  His  chief  work  was 
to  bring  about  specie  payments  without  disturbing  the 
financial  or  industrial  world,  and  this  he  did  with  admirable 
skill. 

Industrial  Awakening.  —  In  the  business  world  the 
country  was  taking  on  new  life,  and  the  most  significant 
feature  was  the  awakening  of  the  South.  The  new  system 
of  free  labor  in  the  South  was  found  to  be  immeasur 
ably  superior  to  that  of  slave  labor.  The  great  coal 
beds,  the  iron  mines,  second  to  none,  the  boundless  timber 
lands  of  the  South,  all  of  which  had  remained  unused  in 
the  past,  were  opened  to  development.  Manufactories 
were  built  in  many  Southern  towns,  and  in  addition  to 

410 


412      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

this  there  was  a  steady  increase  in  the  production  of 
cotton.1 

In  the  North  also  there  was  a  wonderful  awakening, 
most  notably  in  the  steel,  flour,  canned  goods,  meat-pack 
ing,  and  oil  industries.  Petroleum  had  been  discovered  in 
western  Pennsylvania  in  1859  and  by  the  time  we  are 
treating,  the  oil  business  had  grown  to  vast  proportions. 

Great  things  were  happening  in  the  West.  The  Pacific 
Railroad,  completed  in  1869,  had  opened  the  Rocky  Moun 
tain  country  to  development  as  nothing  had  ever  done. 
Colorado  was  admitted  as  the  Centennial  State  in  1876, 
and  others  were  to  follow  a  few  years  later.2 

Great  Railroad  Strike  of  1877.  —  One  effect  of  the  newly 
awakening  industrial  life  was  the  union  of  great  business 
interests  into  combinations  or  trusts.  This  brought  unrest 
among  the  laboring  classes.  In  1877  the  great  railroad 
strike  occurred.  This  was  so  extensive  as  to  cover  the 
half  of  the  country  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  all  that 
section  railroad  traffic  was  at  a  standstill  for  two  weeks. 
Pittsburg  was  the  storm  center,  and  millions  of  dollars' 
worth  of  property  was  destroyed  in  that  city.  The  gov 
ernors  of  several  states  were  obliged  to  call  for  national 
aid  in  putting  down  riots.  The  railroad  strike  was  con 
tagious.  It  spread  to  mining,  manufacturing,  and  other 
industries.  In  most  cases  the  strikers  gained  but  little. 

Anti-Chinese  Movement.  —  The  Chinese  began  coming 
to  California  in  large  numbers  soon  after  the  Burlingame 
Treaty  was  made  with  China  (1868).  These  Mongolians 
clung  to  their  customs  and  superstitions  and  made  no 
pretense  of  becoming  Americans.  After  earning  a  few 

1  The  production  of  cotton  in  1860  was  4,670,000  bales  ;   in  1905  it  ex 
ceeded  13,000,000  bales. 

2  For  the  date  of  the  admission  of  all  the  states  see  Appendix. 


FARMERS'   ORGANIZATIONS  413 

hundred  dollars  they  would  betake  themselves  back  to 
China,  whence  hordes  of  their  countrymen  would  come 
to  America  and  repeat  the  process.  Their  willingness  to 
work  for  very  low  wages  rendered  them  undesirable  com 
petitors  with  white  laborers. 

A  movement  against  the  Chinese  in  1877  in  San  Fran 
cisco  led  to  riots.  Congress  was  besought  to  enact  an 
anti-Chinese  law.  In  1878  such  a  law  was  passed,  but 
vetoed  by  President  Hayes.  Ten  years  passed  when,  in 
1888,  a  Chinese  Exclusion  measure  became  a  law.  This 
was  followed  in  1892  by  the  Geary  Chinese  Exclusion  law, 
the  most  sweeping  act  of  its  kind  ever  enacted  in  any 
country.  This  law  has  greatly  relieved  our  western  coast 
of  a  most  undesirable  class. 

Farmers'  Organizations.  —  A  secret  order  called  the 
Grangers,  or  Patrons  of  Husbandry,  was  founded  in  1867, 
and  reached  its  high-water  mark,  about  1,500,000  members, 
both  men  and  women,  at  the  time  of  Hayes's  presidency. 
After  this  the  membership  declined  and  is  now  (1906) 
about  800,000 ;  but  the  order  has  strengthened  internally 
and  promises  to  be  permanent.  Its  object  is  to  promote 
agricultural  interests. 

The  Farmers'  Alliance,  organized  in  1873,  also  became 
national  in  scope.  It  is  not  a  secret  order ;  it  gives  more 
attention  to  politics  than  do  the  Grangers. 

THE  GARFIELD  TRAGEDY 

James  A.  Garfield,  who  succeeded  Mr.  Hayes  as  Presi 
dent,  was  the  second  of  our  Presidents  to  die  at  the  hands 
of  the  assassin. 

The  Blaine-Conkling  Feud.  —  The  Garfield  tragedy  had 
its  origin  in  a  bitter  feud  between  two  great  Republican 


414      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 


leaders,  James  G.  Elaine  of  Maine  and  Roscoe  Conklingof 
New  York.  Away  back  in  1866  when  both  were  members 
of  the  House  these  two  men  had  a  quarrel  and  forever 
afterward  were  personal  enemies.  This  feud  had  its  results. 
It  was  chiefly  through  Conkling's  efforts  that  Elaine 
failed  to  secure  the  presidential  nomination  in  1876. 

Again  in  1880,  when  it  seemed  that  Elaine  would  surely 
capture  the  prize,  it  was  Conkling  who  led  the  forces  against 
him  and  secured  his  defeat.  He  did  this  by  inducing 

General  Grant  to  con 
sent  to  be  a  candidate 
for  a  third  term  and  by 
securing  some  three 
hundred  delegates  to 
stand  faithfully  for  the 
ex-President.  Both 
Elaine  and  Grant  failed, 
however,  to  secure  the 
nomination  and  the  con 
vention  turned  to  find 
a  "dark  horse."  It 
chose  James  A.  Gar- 
field  of  Ohio.  Chester 
A.  Arthur  of  New 
York  was  nominated 
for  second  place. 

In  the  election  the 
Republicans  were  suc 
cessful,   defeating    General  Winfield    Scott    Hancock,  the 
nominee  of  the  Democrats. 

Split  in  the  Republican  Party.  —  The  Republican  factions 
worked  together  during  the  campaign,  but  the  trouble 
broke  out  afresh  when  Garfield  chose  Elaine  secretary  of 


JAMES  A.  GARFIELD 


DEATH    OF   GARFIELD 


415 


state.  This  was  galling  to  Conkling,  and  the  crisis  came 
when  the  President  appointed  for  collector  of  the  port  of 
New  York  a  friend  of  Blaine  and  an  enemy  of  Conkling. 

When  Conkling  found  that  he  could  not  secure  the  with 
drawal  of  the  appointment  nor  prevent  its  confirmation  by 
the  Senate,  he  and  his  colleague,  Thomas  C.  Platt,  resigned 
from   the   Senate,  ex 
pecting    a    reelection 
by   the   New  York 
legislature  as  a  vindi 
cation  of  their  course. 
But  the  legislature  re 
fused  to  reelect  them 
and  chose   others  to 
fill  their  places. 

Death  of  Garfield.- 
This  incident  opened 
wide  the  breach  in 
the  Republican  party, 
and  while  the  quarrel 
was  at  its  height,  the 
country  was  thrown 
into  consternation  by 
the  assassination  of 
the  President,  July  2, 
1881.  The  assassin 
was  a  half-witted  disappointed  office  seeker  from  New 
York,  named  Guiteau.1 

Mr.  Garfield  was  shot  through  the  body  while  in  a  rail 
road  station  at  Washington.  He  lived  for  many  weeks 

1  Guiteau's  plea  was  that  it  was  necessary  to  "  remove  "  the  President  in 
order  to  reunite  the  Republican  party.  The  man  was  executed.  He  should 
have  been  sent  to  an  insane  asylum. 


JAMES  G.  BLAINE 


4l6      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

through  the  hot  summer  months.  In  August  he  was 
taken  to  the  seashore,  but  the  change  did  little  good  and 
on  the  night  of  September  19  he  died.  His  body  was 
carried  to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  the  beautiful  lake  city  near 
which  he  had  been  born  and  had  always  lived,  and  there  it 
was  laid  to  rest. 

Some  hours  before  daylight  on  the  morning  after  Gar- 
field's  death  Chester  A.  Arthur  was  sworn  into  the  great 
office,  in  his  own  house  in  the  city  of  New  York. 

ARTHUR'S  ADMINISTRATION 

No  other  President  in  our  history  has  been  so  slightly 
known  to  the  public  at  the  time  of  his  inauguration  as  was 
Arthur.  Until  his  nomination  he  had  been  a  local  poli 
tician  in  New  York,  scarcely  known  outside  of  the  state. 
He  was  not  long  in  the  presidential  chair  until  he  proved 
himself  a  strong,  impartial  executive.  He  would  certainly 
have  been  nominated  by  the  Republicans  in  1884  but  for 
the  powerful  hold  of  Mr.  Blaine  on  the  party. 

The  Star-route  Frauds.  —  In  1881  the  attention  of  the 
public  was  directed  to  a  scandal  known  as  the  "  Star-route 
frauds."  These  routes  were  mail  lines  in  the  middle  West 
where  mail  could  not  be  carried  by  railroads  or  steamboats. 
They  were  called  "star-route"  because  a  star  was  placed 
on  the  map  to  designate  the  stations.  It  was  found  that 
high  officials  of  the  government,  including  a  United  States 
senator  and  one  high  in  the  postal  department,  had  con 
spired  with  the  mail-carrying  contractors  to  defraud  the 
government.  Large  sums  of  money  had  been  stolen  be 
fore  the  offenders  were  discovered  and  dismissed  from  the 
service.  A  few  of  them  were  put  on  trial,  but  no  punish 
ments  followed. 


CIVIL   SERVICE    REFORM 


417 


Civil  Service  Reform.  —  The  spoils  system,  that  is,  the 
habit  of  a  party  on  coming  into  power  of  turning  out  of 
office  all  officials  that  belonged  to  the  opposite  party,  had 
been  in  practice  for  half  a  century.  But  the  system  was 
pernicious ;  it  led  men  to  feel  that  they  were  serving  their 
party  rather  than  their  country,  or  receiving  a  reward  for 
party  zeal.  While  Grant  was  President,  an  effort  was 
made  to  reform  the 
Civil  Service. 
President  Hayes 
urged  Congress  to 
continue  the  work, 
but  without  effect. 

At  length  public 
opinion  became  so 
urgent  for  reform 
that  Congress  was 
obliged  to  heed  the 
demand.  In  Janu 
ary,  1883,  a  bill  was 
passed  to  reestab 
lish  the  Civil  Serv 
ice  on  the  merit 
system.  At  first 
but  few  classes 
came  under  the 
new  law,  but  later 

Presidents  have  extended  the  reform  until  now  it  includes 
nearly  every  branch  of  the  government  service. 

There  is  little  else  to  record  of  the  Arthur  administration, 
except  the  Edmunds  anti-polygamy  law,  and  a  tariff  law 
enacted  in  1883,  a  sort  of  compromise  measure  that  pleased 
no  one. 


CHESTER  A.  ARTHUR 


2  E 


418      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

In  1 88 1  a  great  industrial  exposition  at  Atlanta,  Georgia, 
and  another  at  New  Orleans  three  years  later  exhibited 
the  awakening  of  the  New  South  as  nothing  had  done 
before. 

A  Political  Revolution. — For  twenty-four  years  the  Repub 
lican  party  had  held  control  of  the  government ;  but  in  1884 
it  lost  the  election  and  the  presidency  passed  to  its  great 
rival,  the  Democratic  party. 

The  Republicans  nominated  the  brilliant  leader,  James  G. 
Elaine.  But  Mr.  Elaine  had  failed  to  win  the  confidence  of 
some  of  the  strong  men  of  the  party,  notably  Henry  Ward 
Beecher  and  George  William  Curtis,  with  their  thousands 
of  followers.  Moreover,  Elaine's  old  enemy,  Roscoe  Conk- 
ling,  refused  to  aid  in  the  campaign  and  many  of  his  ad 
mirers  voted  for  the  Democratic  candidate. 

The  Democrats  nominated  Grover  Cleveland,  governor 
of  New  York,  who  had  attracted  national  attention  as 
reform  mayor  of  Buffalo.  The  election  was  an  exceed 
ingly  close  one.  New  York  was  the  pivotal  state  and  it 
gave  Cleveland  less  than  twelve  hundred  votes  over 
Elaine.  This  was  enough,  however,  to  decide  the  great 
contest  and  for  the  first  time  since  the  passing  of  James 
Buchanan  the  old  party  of  Jefferson  and  Jackson  came 
into  control  of  the  government. 

FIRST  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CLEVELAND,  1885-1889 

New  Conditions.  — The  old  party  now  restored  to  power 
was  in  one  sense  a  new  party.  The  majority  of  voters  had 
grown  to  manhood  since  the  war.  Old  conditions  had 
passed  away  and  the  new  conditions  called  for  a  new  type 
of  statesmanship.  The  unfriendly  feeling  of  former  years 
between  the  two  great  sections  of  the  country  was  greatly 


PRESIDENTIAL   SUCCESSION    LAW 


419 


softened  and  nothing  proved  this  more  than  the  fact  that 
Mr.  Cleveland  called  to  his  cabinet  two  men  who  had  been 
commanders  in  the  Confederate  armies. 

The  first  bill  to  which  this  Democratic  President  set  his 
hand  was  one  restoring  General  Grant  to  the  retired  list  of 
the  army. 

The  Presidential  Succession  Law.  —  The  most  important 
law  in  the  first  four  years  of  Cleveland's  presidency  (aside 

from     the    necessary     

bills  that  every  Con 
gress  must  pass)  was 
the  law  to  provide  for 
the  presidential  suc 
cession.  For  a  long 
time  it  was  felt  that 
such  a  law  should  be 
enacted,  and  the  death 
in  1885  of  Thomas  A. 
Hendricks,  who  had 
been  elected  Vice 
President  on  the  ticket 
with  Cleveland,  led 
Congress  to  see  the 
necessity  of  such  a 
law. 

Before  this  time  the  office  of  President  passed  to  the 
president  of  the  Senate  and  after  him  to  the  Speaker  of 
the  House,  in  case  of  the  death  or  disability  of  both  Presi 
dent  or  Vice  President.  But  if  the  Senate  and  House 
were  not  in  session  and  had  not  chosen  these  officers,  there 
would  be  a  legal  lapse  of  the  functions  of  the  office. 

All  danger  of  such  a  condition  was  removed  by  the 
Presidential  Succession  Law  of  January,  1886.  By  this 


GROVER  CLEVELAND 


420      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

law  the  succession  runs  through  the  Cabinet,  beginning 
with  the  secretary  of  state;  the  second  being  the  secretary 
of  the  treasury,  the  third  the  secretary  of  war,  and  so  on. 

The  Interstate  Commerce  Act  was  passed  in  1887.  The 
object  was  to  prevent  the  great  railroad  companies  from 
discriminating  against  the  small  shippers  by  giving  lower 
rates  to  the  large  shippers.  This  was  usually  done  by 
means  of  rebates.  The  law  has  not  been  effective  in 
abolishing  rebates  though  it  has  been  useful  in  many  ways 
through  the  work  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission. 

Among  the  subjects  to  attract  public  attention  were  a 
serious  fisheries  dispute  with  Canada,  which  President 
Cleveland  succeeded  in  settling  with  fair  satisfaction  to 
both  sides,  and  an  anarchistic  outbreak  in  Chicago.  A 
meeting  of  anarchists  was  held  in  Haymarket  Square  in 
that  city  and  a  band  of  policemen  was  sent  to  disperse 
them.  A  bomb  was  then  thrown  amid  the  officers,  and  six  of 
them  were  killed  and  many  injured.  The  whole  country 
was  shocked  at  the  outrage.  The  leaders  of  the  mob  were 
arrested.  Four  were  hanged  and  several  sent  to  the 
penitentiary. 

The  Famous  Tariff  Message.  —  President  Cleveland  be 
lieved  that  the  agitation  in  the  labor  world,  which  had 
continued  for  several  years,  was  caused  in  part  by  the 
high  tariff.  The  laboring  classes,  he  declared,  were  not 
sharing  the  benefits  of  the  high  tariff  with  the  great  manu 
facturers.  The  President,  therefore,  devoted  his  entire 
annual  message  in  1887  to  an  argument  in  favor  of  re 
ducing  the  tariff  —  and  it  cost  him  a  reelection  to  the 
presidency. 

The  presidential  election  of  1888  was  a  close  one.  The 
Republicans  nominated  Benjamin  Harrison,  a  grandson  of 
William  Henry  Harrison  whom  the  Whigs  had  elected 


THE   McKINLEY   TARIFF 


421 


President  in   1840.     Cleveland  received  a  majority  of  the 
popular  vote  by  110,000,  but  Harrison  had  a  majority  in 


the  electoral  college. 


HARRISON'S  ADMINISTRATION 

The  McKinley  Tariff.  —  The  Republicans  had  won  the 
presidency  and  both  houses  of  Congress  with  the  tariff  as 
the  main  issue.  The  leaders,  therefore,  interpreted  the 

election  as  a  man-      

date  from  the  peo 
ple  to  make  the 
tariff  still  higher, 
and  they  proceeded 
to  do  so.  The 
McKinley  Tariff, 
named  from  its 
framer,  William 
McKinley  of  Ohio, 
became  a  law  in 
August,  1890.  It 
raised  the  duties  t 
to  an  average 
above  fifty  per  cent 
—  far  higher  than- 
those  of  any  tariff  BENJAMIN  HARRISON 

before   the  war. 

Prices  of  almost  all  imported  goods  were  raised.  The 
people  seemed  displeased,  for  in  the  congressional  election 
that  year  the  Democrats  gained  control  of  the  House  by  a 
large  majority. 

Dependent  Pension  Law ;  Sherman  Silver  Law ;  Anti- 
Lottery. —  In  addition  to  the  McKinley  Tariff  law  several 


422       SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

other  important  laws  were  enacted  in  1890.  Among 
them  was  the  Dependent  Pension  Act.  By  this  law  sol 
diers  and  sailors  who  had  served  in  the  Union  army  or 
navy  in  the  Civil  War  were  entitled  to  pensions,  if  unable, 
from  any  cause,  to  earn  a  living.  There  was  an  immediate 
rush  to  secure  pensions  and  the  annual  pension  outlay, 
which  was  $89,000,000  in  1889,  reached  the  enormous  total 
of  $158,000,000  in  1893. 

The  Anti-Trust  law,  for  the  prevention  of  great  combina 
tions  of  business  corporations,  and  the  Anti-Lottery  law 
were  enacted  in  the  summer  of  1890.  The  latter,  aimed 
at  the  Louisiana  lottery,  forbade  the  use  of  the  mails  for 
lottery  literature,  and  it  proved  very  effective.  The  Anti- 
Trust  law  was  not  so  successful. 

The  Sherman  Silver  law  dates  also  from  the  same  session 
of  Congress.  The  law  was  passed  in  accordance  with  a 
demand  from  the  West  for  a  larger  use  of  silver  as  money. 
It  repealed  the  Bland-Allison  law  and  ordered  the  purchase 
by  the  government  of  four  and  a  half  million  ounces  of 
silver  a  month.  This  law,  it  was  expected,  would  keep  up 
the  price  of  silver,  but  it  failed  to  do  so  and  a  few  years 
later  the  silver  question  became  the  most  important  one 
before  the  country. 

Six  new  states  entered  the  Union  in  the  years  1889  and 
1890.  These  were  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Mon 
tana,  and  Washington  in  1889  and  Idaho  and  Wyoming 
in  1890. 

The  population  had  moved  steadily  westward  from  the 
East  and  eastward  from  the  Pacific  coast  until  the  vast 
Rocky  Mountain  region  had  been  covered  and  there  was 
no  longer  a  frontier.  The  mountain  states  were  not 
thickly  settled.  There  was  here  and  there  a  mining  town, 
a  cattle  ranch,  or  a  community,  but  so  vast  was  the  extent 


OKLAHOMA  TERRITORY  423 

of  these  Western  states  that  the  aggregate  population  was 
very  considerable. 

Oklahoma  territory  was  opened  to  white  settlers  on 
April  22,  1889.  Fifty  thousand  people  waited  at  the 
border  for  the  bugle  call  to  proclaim  the  hour  of  opening, 
when  they  rushed  in,  many  securing  farms  while  others 
were  not  successful,  as  the  demand  was  greater  than  the 
supply. 

The  congressional  elections  of  1890  resulted  in  the 
defeat  of  the  Republicans,  the  Democrats  gaining  control 
of  the  House  by  more  than  a  hundred  majority.  Another 
party,  the  Populist  party,  had  now  come  into  existence,  and 
so  rapid  was  its  growth  in  the  West  and  South  that  in 
1890  it  elected  eighteen  members  to  the  House  and  several 
senators. 

The  administration,  having  lost  control  of  Congress, 
could  pass  no  more  party  measures,  and  therefore  there 
were  few  matters  of  political  interest. 

In  1891  two  affairs  connected  with  our  foreign  relations 
attracted  much  public  attention.  One  was  a  dispute  with 
Chili  because  of  an  attack  on  American  sailors  in  the  streets 
of  Valparaiso  in  which  several  were  killed.  A  settlement 
was  made  by  the  payment  by  the  government  of  Chili  to 
the  United  States  of  $75,000  indemnity. 

The  other  was  the  putting  to  death  of  eleven  Italians 
by  a  mob  in  New  Orleans.  These  men  belonged  to  a  mur 
derous  secret  society  and  were  supposed  to  have  murdered 
the  chief  of  police.  Three  of  them  proved  to  be  subjects 
of  the  king  of  Italy,  who  demanded  that  the  leaders  of  the 
mob  be  punished  and  that  an  indemnity  be  paid.  The 
indemnity  ($25,000)  was  paid  by  the  administration,  but 
as  the  state  of  Louisiana  had  control  of  the  case,  no  pun 
ishments  followed. 


424      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

The  Election  of  1892.  —  President  Harrison  was  nomi 
nated  for  a  second  term.  The  Democratic  masses  wanted 
Cleveland,  though  the  professional  politicians  in  his  own 
state  opposed  him.  He  was  nominated  on  the  first  ballot, 
though  every  New  York  delegate  voted  against  him.  The 
chief  issue  of  the  campaign  was  the  McKinley  tariff. 

The  third  party  of  this  year,  known  as  the  Populist, 
or  People's  party,  was  unusually  formidable.  It  pronounced 
for  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  for  an  income  tax,  and  for 
national  ownership  of  railroads  and  telegraphs.  This  party 
named  James  B.  Weaver,  and  the  Prohibitionists  named 
John  Bidwell. 

The  result  of  the  election  was  a  sweeping  victory  for 
Cleveland.  The  Senate  also  became  Democratic  by  a 
large  majority. 

Useful  Inventions.  —  Among  the  most  important  inven 
tions  since  the  war  are  the  telephone  and  the  electric  light. 
The  telephone  was  invented  simultaneously  by  Elisha  Gray 
of  Chicago  and  Alexander  Bell  of  Boston,  both  of  whom  ap 
plied  for  a  patent  on  the  same  day  and  at  almost  the  same 
hour.  The  electric  light,  invented  by  Charles  F.  Brush 
and  Thomas  A.  Edison,  has  innumerable  uses,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  the  lighting  of  city  streets.  Among 
the  hundreds  of  other  inventions  since  the  Civil  War  are 
passenger  elevators  for  high  buildings,  the  typewriter,  the 
bicycle  and  automobile,  typesetting  machines,  steam  heat 
ing,  and  artificial  ice. 

Among  engineering  achievements  are  the  Brooklyn 
bridge,  completed  in  1883;  the  Williamsburg  bridge,  com 
pleted  in  1904,  both  between  New  York  and  Brooklyn;  the 
Eads  steel  bridge  across  the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis,  and 
the  construction  of  the  Eads  jetty  system  for  deepening 
the  channel  of  the  river  below  New  Orleans. 


SUMMARY  425 

SUMMARY 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  Mr.  Hayes  on  his  becoming  President  was 
to  withdraw  the  troops  from  South  Carolina,  Florida,  and  Louisiana, 
which  had  been  under  military  rule  since  the  war. 

A  great  awakening  in  the  business  world  marked  this  administration, 
the  most  significant  feature  of  which  was  the  awakening  in  the  South, 
which,  under  its  new  system  of  labor,  began  a  wonderful  career  of 
prosperity. 

An  Anti-Chinese  movement  on  the  Pacific  coast  resulted  in  a  strict 
law  against  Chinese  immigration. 

The  Grangers  and  Farmers'  Alliance,  organizations  of  farmers,  became 
national  in  scope  during  this  period. 

The  election  of  1880  resulted  in  the  choice  of  James  A.  Garfield  for 
President.  He  was  shot  by  an  assassin  in  July,  1881,  and  died  in 
September,  when  Chester  A.  Arthur  was  sworn  into  the  office.  The 
most  notable  feature  of  Arthur's  administration  was  the  progress  made 
in  Civil  Service  Reform. 

In  1884  Grover  Cleveland  defeated  Mr.  Elaine  for  President,  and  the 
reins  of  government  passed  to  the  Democrats,  for  the  first  time  in 
twenty-four  years.  The  Presidential  Succession  law  was  passed  in 
1886  and  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  in  1887. 

In  December,  1887,  Mr.  Cleveland  devoted  his  entire  message  to  the 
tariff,  thus  making  that  the  issue  in  the  campaign  of  the  following  year, 
when  Cleveland  was  defeated  by  Benjamin  Harrison. 

Among  the  important  laws  passed  while  Harrison  was  President 
were  the  Dependent  Pension  law,  the  McKinley  Tariff,  the  Anti-Trust 
and  Anti-Lottery  laws. 

Two  disputes  with  foreign  countries,  one  with  Chili  and  the  other 
with  the  king  of  Italy,  marked  the  year  1891.  In  1892  Mr.  Cleveland 
was  elected  a  second  time  to  the  presidency. 


CHAPTER   XXV 

WAR  AND  EXPANSION 

CLEVELAND'S  SECOND  TERM 

GROVER  CLEVELAND  was  our  only  President  to  serve 
two  terms  that  were  not  consecutive.  The  large  Republi 
can  faction,  known  as  "  Mugwumps,"  who  had  supported 
him  was  now  recognized  by  the  choosing  of  Walter  Q. 
Gresham,  one  of  their  number,  as  secretary  of  state. 
Adlai  E.  Stevenson  of  Illinois  had  been  elected  Vice 
President. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands. —  Hawaii,  or  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
was  a  tiny  monarchy  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  some  twenty- 


THE  HARBOR  OF  HONOLULU 

one  hundred  miles  from  San  Francisco,  with  a  little  more 
than  one  hundred  thousand  inhabitants. 

A  number  of  Americans  living  on  the  islands,  desiring 
to  have  them  annexed  to  the  United  States,  brought  about 
a  revolution,  dethroned  the  queen,  and  framed  a  treaty  of 

426 


THE   PANIC   OF   1893 


427 


annexation.  This  was  done  while  Mr.  Harrison  was  Presi 
dent,  and  he  sent  the  treaty  to  the  Senate.  But  he  went 
out  of  office  before  that  body  could  act  and  Mr.  Cleveland 
withdrew  the  treaty  on  the  ground  that  we  had  no  right  to 
govern  the  islands  unless  the  Hawaiian  people  themselves 
sought  annexation,  which  he  declared  they  had  not  done. 

The   deposed   queen,    however,  was   not   restored   and 
Hawaii  became  a  republic.    A  few  years  later  (July  7,  1 898), 


RICE  FIELDS  IN  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS 

when  the  Cleveland  administration  had  been  succeeded  by 
another,  the  islands  were  formally  annexed  to  the  United 
States. 

The  Panic  of  1893.  —  Scarcely  had  the  administration 
begun  its  career  when  the  finances  of  the  country  became 
greatly  disturbed  and  there  were  unmistakable  signs  of 
panic  and  industrial  depression.  In  the  belief  that  the 
repeal  of  the  Sherman  Silver  law  would  bring  relief,  the 


428      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

President  called  an  extra  session  of  Congress  to  meet  in 
August,  1893.  This  law  compelled  the  government  to 
purchase  four  and  a  half  million  ounces  of  silver  per 
month  and  to  pay  for  it  in  notes  redeemable  in  gold.  The 
law  was  at  length  repealed,  but  it  was  too  late  to  avert  the 
coming  panic,  which  was  the  resultant  of  many  causes. 
The  business  of  the  country  was  unsettled  and  hundreds  of 
manufactories  closed  their  doors,  thus  throwing  thousands 
of  people  out  of  work.  Several  years  passed  before  the 
business  of  the  country  resumed  its  normal  condition. 

The  Wilson  Tariff.  —  At  such  a  moment  it  was  no  doubt 
unwise  for  the  Democrats  to  disturb  the  tariff;  but  they. 
had  won  the  election  on  this  issue  and  they  now  proceeded 
to  frame  a  new  tariff  bill.  It  was  called  the  Wilson  Tariff- 
because  framed  by  William  L.  Wilson,  a  leading  member 
of  the  House  from  West  Virginia. 

By  this  tariff  the  average  duties  of  the  McKinley  Tariff, 
about  fifty  per  cent,  were  lowered  to  about  thirty-seven- 
per  cent  and  many  things  were  put  on  the  free  list.  The 
bill  became  a  law  in  August,  1894.  It  included  a  provision, 
for  an  income  tax,  which,  however,  was  pronounced  uncon 
stitutional  the  next  year  by  the  Supreme  Court. 

The  people  seemed  displeased  with  the  Wilson  Tariff, 
and  for  this  and  other  reasons  the  Republicans  swept  the 
country  in  the  elections  of  1894,  and  gained  a  large  majority 
in  the  lower  house  of  Congress,  so  that  from  this  time 
on  the  administration  could  pass  no  party  measures. 

The  Venezuela  Message.  —  A  startling  event  occurred  in 
our  relations  with  Great  Britain  late  in  the  year  1895.  For 
many  years  there  had  been  a  standing  dispute  between  the 
English  government  and  Venezuela  on  account  of  territory 
claimed  by  both.  Venezuela  offered  again  and  again  to 
leave  the  matter  to  arbitration  and  our  government  urged 


(The  different  Scales  used  shoi 


TERRITORIAL 
GROWTH 

OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES 
Disputed 

A  Disputed  by  Great  liritian 
and  the  United  States  (  17S3-1812] 
B  Disputed  by  Spain  and  the 
United  States,    (1S08-1S19); 
seized  by  the  United  Slates 

1812-      SCALE   OF   MILES 


J  noted  with  particular  care.) 


BuRMAV  4  CO.,N.T. 


THE   SILVER   CAMPAIGN    OF    1896  429 

the  English  to  accept  this  offer,  but  they  refused.  Our 
secretary  of  state  informed  the  British  premier  that  in 
accordance  with  the  Monroe  Doctrine  the  United  States 
must  insist  on  arbitration,  and  when  the  premier  declared 
in  answer  that  he  did  not  accept  the  Monroe  Doctrine, 
Mr.  Cleveland  came  out  with  his  now  famous  message. 

In  this  message  the  President  declared  that  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  must  be  respected  and  that  the  United  States 
would  use  every  means  within  its  power  to  bring  about 
arbitration.  The  world  was  thrilled  by  the  suddenness  and 
positive  tone  of  the  message  and  also  by  the  fact  that  Con 
gress  forgot  its  party  differences  and  voted  unanimously 
to  support  the  President. 

For  a  time  it  seemed  that  the  war  cloud  hovered  over 
the  two  great  English-speaking  nations ;  but  the  English 
government  receded  from  its  position,  agreed  to  arbitra 
tion,  and  all  danger  of  war  was  over. 

The  Silver  Campaign  of  1896.  — As  we  have  noticed,  the 
administration  was  launched  in  the  midst  of  an  incipient 
panic,  and  this  panic  bore  heavily  on  the  people  for  sev 
eral  years.  The  Republicans  heaped  the  blame  on  the 
party  in  power  and  thus  the  Democrats  were  repaid  for 
what  they  had  done  twenty  years  before.  Many  believed 
the  repeal  of  the  Sherman  law  and  the  consequent  drop 
in  the  price  of  silver  to  be  the  cause  of  the  hard  times. 
There  was,  therefore,  a  great  cry  from  the  West  and  South 
for  the  free  coinage  of  silver  at  the  rate  of  16  to  r. 

There  were  many  of  this  belief  in  both  parties,  but  at 
length  the  Republicans  decided  on  the  gold  standard  and 
nominated  William  McKinley  of  Ohio  for  President.  .  The 
Democrats  pronounced  for  free  coinage  of  silver  and 
nominated  William  J.  Bryan  of  Nebraska,  the  Populists 
joining  with  them  in  the  choice  of  Bryan. 


430     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Both  candidates  were  men  of  the  highest  personal 
character.  The  campaign  was  one  of  the  most  excit 
ing  in  our  history.  Mr.  Bryan  spoke  in  many  states 


WILLIAM  MCKINLEY 

and  his  eloquence  drew  vast  crowds.  But  the  odds  were 
against  him.  Many  people  believed  that  free  silver 
meant  cheap  money,  and  that  if  the  finances  of  the  coun 
try  were  put  upon  a  silver  basis,  business  would  be 
greatly  disturbed.  McKinley  was  elected  by  a  large 
majority  and  Garret  A.  Hobart  of  New  Jersey  became 
Vice  President. 


SPAIN   AND   CUBA 


431 


THE  SPANISH  WAR 

After  enacting  a  new  tariff  measure  the  administration 
was  called  on  to  engage  in  a  short  war  with  Spain.  The 
new  tariff,  which  is  still  (1906)  in  force,  is  known  as  the 
Dingley  Tariff,  because  framed  by  Nelson  Dingley,  a 
member  of  the  House  from  Maine.  It  repealed  the  Wilson 
Tariff  and  raised  the  duties  as  high  as  in  the  McKinley 
bill  of  1890.  The  Dingley  Tariff  became  a  law  on  July 
24,  1897. 

Spain  and  Cuba.  —  At  one  time  Spain  had  control  of  the 
western  half  of  North  America,  of  nearly  all  of  Central 


A  STREET  IN  SAN  JUAN,  CUBA 

and  South  America,  and  most  of  the  adjacent  islands. 
But  her  power  waned  until  only  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 
were  left  to  her  in  the  Western  Hemisphere.  Her  rule  in 
Cuba  was  one  of  corruption  and  oppression  and  the  Cubans 
revolted  several  times  against  her  iron  hand.  The  last  of 
these  revolts  began  in  February,  1895. 

Spain  sent  an  army  to  Cuba,  but  in  three  years  it  had 


432      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

done  but  little  to  put  down  the  insurrection.  At  last  the 
Spaniards  decided  on  a  starvation  policy.  Thousands  of 
Cubans  took  no  part  in  the  war ;  they  remained  on  their 
farms  until  the  cruel  General  Weyler  drove  them  from  their 
homes  and  penned  them  up  in  the  towns,  that  they  might 
not  furnish  food  for  the  rebels.  Soon  they  were  in  a 
starving  condition.  The  death  rate  was  frightful.  The 
cry  of  distress  reached  the  great  American  heart.  Our 
people  were  eager  to  rescue  down-trodden  Cuba,  even  if  it 
meant  war  with  Spain. 

President  Cleveland  had  warned  Spain  in  his  final  mes 
sage.  President  McKinley  repeated  the  warning  and  still 
Spain  refused  to  hear.  In  February,  1898,  the  Maine, 
a  fine  American  battleship  that  was  lying  in  Cuban  waters, 
was  blown  to  fragments  by  a  submarine  mine  and  two 
hundred  and  sixty-six  of  her  crew  perished.  When  the 

American  people  were  con 
vinced  that  the  Maine  was 
destroyed  through  Spanish 
treachery,  their  anger  broke 
forth.  The  destruction  of  the 
Maine  may  have  hastened  the 
war,  but  it  did  not  cause  it. 
The  true  cause  of  the  war  is 
found  in  a  few  words  from  the 
President's  special  message  to 
Congress  of  April  11,  1898,  as 
follows  :  "  In  the  name  of  hu 
manity,  in  the  name  of  civiliza- 
.  the  war  in  Cuba  must  stop."  War  was  declared 
by  Congress  on  April  25,  and  none  was  ever  waged  for  a 
nobler  purpose. 

Dewey  at  Manila  Bay.  —  The  first  notable  battle  of  the 


ADMIRAL  GEORGE  DEWEY 


THE   WAR    IN    CUBA 


433 


war  occurred  in  the  Orient.  Spain  had  controlled  the 
Philippine  Islands  since  their  discovery  by  the  dauntless 
Magellan  in  1521.  In  the  spring  of  1898  Commodore 
George  Dewey  had  command  of  an  American  fleet  in 
Eastern  waters,  and  he  was  ordered  to  Manila  Bay  to  attack 
the  Spaniards.  He  hastened  to  Manila,  and  on  the  first 
day  of  May  met  the  Spanish  fleet  commanded  by  Admiral 

Montojo,  and  the  battle       _ 

of  Manila  was  fought. 
The  battle  began  early 
in  the  morning  and  by 
one  o'clock  in  the  after 
noon  the  Spanish  fleet 
was  totally  destroyed. 
Hundreds  of  Spaniards 
were  dead  or  wounded 
and  not  an  American 
was  killed,  nor  an  Amer 
ican  ship  disabled.  A 
few  months  later  the 
city  of  Manila  was  cap 
tured  with  13,000  Span 
ish  soldiers. 

The  War  in  Cuba.  - 
Meantime  equally  great 
events  were  happening 

in  Cuba.  In  June  an  army  of  about  16,000  men,  com 
manded  by  General  William  R.  Shafter,  landed  in  Cuba 
some  miles  from  Santiago.  They  first  captured  the  Span 
ish  position  at  Las  Guasimas,  then  took  El  Caney,  a  forti 
fied  town  near  Santiago.  On  July  2  and  3  the  battle  of 
San  Juan  was  fought,  the  most  important  land  battle  of 
the  war.  The  Americans  won,  with  the  loss  of  241  killed 

2F 


SAN  JUAN  BLOCKHOUSE,  SHOWING  MARKS 
OF  SHOT 


434      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

and  1400  wounded.  They  were  then  ready  to  storm  the 
city  of  Santiago.  A  Spanish  fleet,  commanded  by  Ad 
miral  Cervera,  had  taken  refuge  in  Santiago  Harbor.  Out 
side  the  harbor  the  combined  fleet  of  Admiral  Sampson 
and  Commodore  Schley  waited  for  Cervera.  The  Spanish 
fleet  made  a  dash  for  liberty  on  July  3,  and  attempted 
to  escape  by  flight ;  but  the  American  fleet  attacked  with 
great  fury,  and  in  a  wild  running  fight  of  a  few  hours 
the  entire  Spanish  fleet  was  destroyed,  every  vessel  be 
ing  captured  or  sunk.  No  American  ship  was  injured ; 
one  American  was  killed  and  one  wounded.  Two  weeks 
later  Santiago  surrendered  and  Cuba  thus  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  United  States. 

The  island  of  Porto  Rico,  which  lies  some  500  miles 
southeast  of  Cuba,  was  the  next  object  of  attack.  General 
Nelson  A.  Miles  landed  an  army  on  the  island  late  in  July 
and  soon  had  possession  of  several  of  the  towns ;  but  on 
August  13  the  expedition  came  to  a  standstill  by  news  that 
the  United  States  and  Spain  had  agreed  to  terms  of  peace. 
The  agreement  was  that  Spain  should  relinquish  her 
sovereignty  over  Cuba,  should  cede  Porto  Rico  to  the 
United  States,  and  that  the  control  of  the  Philippines 
should  be  decided  by  a  treaty. 

By  the  treaty,  arranged  at  Paris  late  in  the  fall,  the 
Philippines  passed  to  the,  United  States,  on  the  payment 
to  Spain  of  $20,000,000.  The  treaty  was  ratified  by  our 
Senate  on  February  6,  1899. 

Results  of  the  War. — The  conflict  had  continued  less  than 
four  months.  The  Americans  had  won  in  every  engage 
ment.  Though  the  war  was  not  a  great  one,  it  was  impor 
tant  when  measured  by  results.  It  marked  the  end  of 
Spanish  rule  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  and  of  the 
Spanish  Empire  as  a  world  power. 


Drawn  by  Henry  Reuterdahl 


THE  "OREGON"  IN  CHASE  OF  THE  "CRISTOBAL  COLON"  DURING  THE 
BATTLE  OF  SANTIAGO 


435 


436     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

On  the  other  hand,  this  little  war  was  the  means  of 
causing  the  United  States  to  expand  into  a  world  power. 
It  gave  us  colonial  possessions  of  great  importance  and 
thus  threw  upon  us  a  vast  additional  responsibility. 

OUR  ISLAND  POSSESSIONS 

Porto  Rico,  our  new  possession  in  the  West  Indies,  is 
slightly  above  6000  square  miles  in  extent.  It  is  the  home 
of  950,000  people,  something  over  half  of  whom  are  of 
Spanish  descent.  The  island  was  under  military  govern- 


,     PHILIPPINE  NATIVES  AND  CATTLE 

ment  after  the  war  till  December,  1900,  when  civil  govern 
ment  was  established. 

The  Philippine  Archipelago  extends  almost  from  Borneo 
to  Formosa  and  comprises  more  than  3000  islands,  hun 
dreds  of  which  are  barren,  uninhabitable,  volcanic  rocks. 
The  largest  of  the  islands  is  Luzon,  about  the  size  of  Ohio. 

The  population  of  the  islands  by  the  census  of  1903  was 
7,635,426,  of  whom  more  than  6,000,000  are  civilized  or 
partly  civilized.  The  people  are  divided  into  many  tribes, 


OUR   ISLAND   POSSESSIONS  437 

the  most  enlightened  of  which  are  the  Tagalogs,  who 
number  1,460,000.  The  lowest  class  are  the  Negritos, 
supposed  to  be  aborigines,  of  whom  only  23,500  still  exist. 
They  are  a  shy,  dwarfish  people  who  wander  among  the 
mountains  in  small  tribes,  living  on  roots  and  small  game. 

A  revolt  in  the  Philippines  occurred  soon  after  their 
occupation  by  the  Americans.  A  strong  young  leader 
named  Aguinaldo  soon  had  an  army  of  insurgents  which 
he  led  against  the  Americans. 

Meantime  the  presidential  campaign  of  1900  had  an 
important  bearing  on  the  Filipinos.  The  candidates  were 
the  same  as  four  years  before,  —  McKinley  and  Bryan. 
The  fact  that  the  Democrats  pronounced  in  favor  of  Fili 
pino  independence  gave  courage  to  the  insurgents.  The 
Republicans  were  again  successful ;  Mr.  McKinley  was  re- 
elected  and  the  insurgents  lost  courage.  In  March,  1901, 
Aguinaldo  was  captured ;  the  rebellion  gradually  abated, 
though  it  had  continued  several  years  and  cost  our  govern 
ment  many  millions  of  dollars. 

Civil  government  was  inaugurated  and  on  July  4,  1901, 
Judge  William  R.  Taft  became  the  first  governor.1  Many 
of  the  officials  in  the  government  are  native  Filipinos,  and 
it  is  now  agreed  by  both  great  parties  in  America  that  at 
some  time  in  the  future  the  islands  should  be  granted  self- 
government. 

Cuba,  meantime,  had  been  taken  possession  of  by  the 
United  States,  and  after  many  improvements  had  been 
made  in  the  school  system,  in  the  sanitary  conditions,  and 
the  like,  the  government  of  the  island  was  handed  over  to 
the  inhabitants  (May  20,  1902)  and  Cuba  became  almost, 
but  not  absolutely,  an  independent  republic. 

1  It  was  not,  however,  till  July  4,  1902,  that  the  President  proclaimed  the 
insurrection  at  an  end  and  that  civil  government  fully  superseded  the  military. 


438     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED    STATES 


Two  GREAT  WORLD'S  FAIRS 

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  commemorating  the 
four  hundredth  year  since  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus,  was  held  in  Chicago  in  1893. 

The  "  White  City,"  as  the  group  of  buildings  was  called, 
had  cost,  with  the  preparing  of  the  grounds,  more  than 
$20,000,000  and  the  entire  cost  of  the  exposition  was  about 
$40,000,000.  The  main  buildings,  surrounding  a  Court  of 
Honor,  with  its  glistening  lakes  and  stately  colonnades, 
presented  a  scene  of  splendor  that  led  the  beholder  to  feel 
that  he  was  in  dreamland. 

The  great  object  of  the  exposition  was  to  exhibit  the  mar 
velous  growth  of  civilization  in  the  past  four  hundred  years. 
Never  before  in  the  world's  history  had  such  a  collection  of 
the  products  of  art,  science,  and  manufactures  been  made. 

St.  Louis  World's  Fair,  1904.  —  As  the  hundredth  anniver 
sary  of  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  approached,  the  country 
prepared  to  hold  a  great  exposition  in  commemoration  of 
the  event ;  but,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Columbian  Exposition, 
the  year  following  the  anniversary  was  chosen,  owing  to 
tardiness  in  making  preparations.  St.  Louis,  the  largest 
city  in  the  "  Louisiana  Purchase,"  was  chosen  as  the  place. 

This  exposition  was  similar  to  that  at  Chicago,  except 
that  its  dimensions  were  somewhat  greater  and  there  were 
many  new  features. 

There  were  five  hundred  buildings  covering  three  hun 
dred  acres,  and  the  entire  cost  of  the  great  fair  reached 
about  $50,000,000,  exceeding  the  cost  of  that  at  Chicago 
by  some  $10,000,000. 

The  exhibits  in  the  great  structures,  from  every  part 
of  the  world,  were  bewildering  in  their  number  and  attrac- 


DEATH    OF   McKINLEY 


439 


tions,  and  the  exposition  on  the  whole  was,  beyond  a  doubt, 
the  most  gorgeous  and  magnificent  in  the  history  of  the 
human  race. 

DEATH  OF  MCKINLEY;  ROOSEVELT 

Every  indication  pointed  to  a  happy  and  prosperous 
second  term  for  President  McKinley.  But  in  the  early 
part  of  the  fall  of  1901 
the  country  was  called 
to  mourn  the  death  of  the 
Chief  Magistrate  at  the 
hand  of  an  assassin.  On 
the  6th  of  September,  while 
attending  the  Pan-Ameri 
can  Exposition  at  Buffalo, 
the  President  was  shot 
twice  by  an  anarchist.  On 
the  1 4th  of  the  same  month 
he  died. 

President  McKinley  had 
won  the  people's  love  as 
few  Presidents  have  done. 
He  was  mourned  by  every 
class  of  his  countrymen, 
except  the  anarchists,  who 
are  foes  to  all  government. 

On  the  day  of  his  death  Theodore  Roosevelt  of  New  York, 
who  had  been  elected  Vice  President,  was  sworn  into  the 
great  office,  at  Buffalo.  Mr.  Roosevelt  had  attracted  pub 
lic  attention  as  a  fearless  officer  and  as  a  dashing  soldier 
in  Cuba.  He  now  declared  that  he  would  carry  out  the 
policy  of  McKinley  and,  for  the  time,  retained  the  latter's 
entire  Cabinet. 


THEODORE  ROOSEVELT 


440     SCHOOL  HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL 

For  more  than  fifty  years  the  subject  of  a  canal  across 
the  isthmus  between  North  and  South  America  had  en 
gaged  the  attention  of  the  people  of  the  United  States, 
and,  to  some  extent,  of  all  civilized  nations. 

Nicaragua  or  Panama  ?  —  While  the  American  people 
were  discussing  the  matter,  a  French  company,  organized 
by  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  made  an  attempt  to  join  the  two 
oceans  at  Panama,  beginning  the  work  in  1881. 

The  Americans  meantime  focused  their  attention  on 
Nicaragua.  A  private  company  was  organized,  but  in  the 
course  of  ten  years  nothing  of  importance  was  done.  The 
attention  of  Congress  was  turned  toward  government 
ownership  and  various  commissions  were  appointed  to  in 
vestigate.  Meanwhile  the  French  company,  after  spend 
ing  a  vast  sum  on  the  project,  collapsed  and  offered  to  sell 
its  interests  to  the  United  States. 

The  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  of  1850,  between  the  United 
States  and  England,  had  provided  that  neither  country 
should  construct  a  canal  across  the  isthmus  without  the 
cooperation  of  the  other.  This  treaty  was  superseded  by 
the  Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty  of  1901  by  which  the  neutrality 
of  the  canal  is  guaranteed,  while  the  United  States  becomes 
the  sole  builder. 

Arrangements  were  then  made  with  the  French  com 
pany  to  purchase  its  interests  for  $40,000,000,  on  the 
condition  that  the  United  States  government  could  secure 
from  Colombia  a  franchise  for  the  right  of  way. 

Revolt  in  Panama.  —  A  treaty  was  framed,  known  as  the 
Hay-Herran  Treaty,  between  the  United  States  and  the 
Colombian  government,  by  which  the  former  was  to  have 
the  lease  of  a  canal  belt  across  the  isthmus  for  a  hundred 


REVOLT   IN   PANAMA 


441 


years  with  the  privilege  of  perpetual  renewal.  The  terms 
were  that  the  United  States  pay  Colombia  a  cash  bonus 
of  $10,000,000  and  an  annual  rental  after  the  canal  should 
be  finished. 

The  United  States  Senate  ratified  the  treaty  in  March, 
1903;  but  the  Colombian  Senate,  after  a  long  session, 
rejected  the  treaty  by  a  unanimous  vote.  This  was 


PANAMA  CANAL  IN  CONSTRUCTION 

a  strange  proceeding,  since  the  canal  would  become  a  won 
derful  stimulus  to  Colombian  prosperity.  The  apparent 
motive  in  rejecting  the  treaty  was  to  exact  a  larger  bonus 
from  the  United  States ;  but  something  else  happened. 

Scarcely  had  the  Colombian  Senate  rejected  the  treaty 
when  the  people  of  Panama,  who  greatly  favored  the  canal, 
rose  in  rebellion  and  proclaimed  an  independent  republic. 

The  United  States  and  the  European  powers  quickly 
recognized  the  new  republic.  Colombia  saw  her  blunder 


442      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

when  too  late.  She  offered  the  canal  franchise  free  if  our 
government  would  allow  her  to  send  an  army  to  put  down 
the  revolt  in  Panama.  The  offer  was  refused. 

We  then  proceeded  to  make  a  treaty  with  Panama  and 
this  was  ratified  by  Panama  in  December,  1903,  and  by 
the  United  States  Senate  in  February,  1904.  By  this 
treaty  Panama  receives  $10,000,000  and  a  guarantee  of 
protection  in  her  independence,  while  the  French  company 
receives  its  $40,000,000.  The  United  States  is  granted 
sovereignty  across  the  isthmus  over  the  canal  belt,  ten 
miles  wide. 

Work  on  the  great  waterway  soon  began  and  is  now  in 
progress.  The  distance  across  the  isthmus  is  fifty  miles, 
and  the  constructing  of  the  canal  is  the  greatest  engineer 
ing  project  in  history.  It  will  require  the  labor  of  thou 
sands  of  men  for  at  least  ten  years  and  will  cost  several 
hundred  millions  of  dollars. 

The  Panama  Canal  when  finished  will  be  a  work  of  in 
calculable  value  to  the  commercial  world.  The  distance 
by  sea  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  now  is  13,714 
miles,  and  will  be  reduced  to  5299,  a  saving  of  8415  miles. 
The  gain  from  Liverpool  to  San  Francisco  will  be  6046 
miles,  and  from  New  York  to  Sidney,  Australia,  about 
4000  miles. 

SUMMARY 

Mr.  Cleveland  became  President  a  second  time  in  1893.  He  with 
drew  the  Hawaiian  Treaty  on  the  ground  that  the  islands  were  not 
willing  to  become  an  American  possession;  but  in  1897  Hawaii  was 
annexed  to  the  United  States. 

A  panic,  beginning  in  1893,  continued  for  several  years.  The  Wilson 
Tariff  was  passed  in  1893,  and  a  year  later  the  Republicans  won  control 
of  Congress. 


SUMMARY 


443 


The  Venezuelan  message  of  1895  brought  about  arbitration  between 
Venezuela  and  Great  Britain. 

In  the  campaign  of  1896  Mr.  Bryan  was  defeated  by  McKinley  on 
the  silver  issue. 

The  Spanish  War  came  about  through  a  revolution  in  Cuba  against 
the  misgovernment  of  the  island  by  Spain,  and  was  undertaken  by  the 
United  States  for  the  purpose  of  rescuing  the  Cubans  from  oppression. 

The  first  battle  was  the  naval  engagement  at  Manila,  May  i,  1898, 
in  which  Dewey  destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet.  After  several  engagements 
in  Cuba  Santiago  surrendered  and  the  Spanish  fleet,  emerging  from  the 
harbor,  was  destroyed  by  the  American  fleet. 

Peace  was  agreed  on  in  August.  Cuba  became  free  from  Spanish 
control,  while  Porto  Rico,  and  later  the  Philippine  Islands,  were  ceded 
by  Spain  to  the  United  States. 

The  Filipinos  rose  in  rebellion  against  the  Americans  and  a  desultory 
warfare  was  kept  up  for  several  years,  but  at  length  it  subsided  and  civil 
government  was  inaugurated.  The  islands  comprise  115,000  square 
miles,  the  population  being  7,635,426.  Porto  Rico  was  granted  civil 
government,  while  Cuba  became  a  self-governing  republic. 

Two  great  World's  Fairs  were  held,  one  at  Chicago  in  1893,  com 
memorating  the  discovery  of  America;  the  other  at  St.  Louis  in  1904, 
celebrating  the  centennial  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase. 

President  McKinley  was  inaugurated  for  a  second  term  on  March  4, 
1901,  and  in  September  was  assassinated,  Theodore  Roosevelt  being 
sworn  into  the  office. 

The  long-continued  desire  to  construct  a  ship  canal  between  the  two 
Americas  resulted  in  securing  the  right  of  way  from  Panama,  which 
became  an  independent  republic  by  breaking  away  from  Colombia  in 
the  autumn  of  1903.  For  the  sum  of  $10,000,000  the  United  States 
secured  sovereignty  over  a  canal  belt  ten  miles  in  width. 


CHAPTER   XXVI 
DAWN  OF  THE   NEW  CENTURY 

THE  dawn  of  the  twentieth  century  found  the  United 
States  in  a  most  prosperous  condition,  and  in  the  most 
friendly  relations  with  all  other  countries.  A  brief  notice 
of  what  we  have  done,  what  we  are,  and  what  we  hope  to 
be  as  a  nation  will  fittingly  close  this  volume.  But  first 
we  must  notice 

THE  ROOSEVELT  ADMINISTRATION,   1901- 

We  have  noticed  the  occasion  of  President  Roosevelt's 
accession  to  the  great  office  that  he  now  fills,  and  also  the 
important  work  on  the  Panama  Canal,  in  which  he  has 
been  the  most  conspicuous  figure.  This  brings  us  to  the 

Presidential  Campaign  of  1904.  —  The  call  for  the  nomi 
nation  of  Roosevelt  to  become  his  own  successor  came,  not 
from  the  politicians  and  leaders  of  his  own  party,  but  from 
the  masses  of  the  people,  and  though  a  determined  effort 
was  made  to  defeat  him,  it  was  not  successful.  He  was 
nominated  at  Chicago  in  June  by  a  unanimous  vote,  all 
opposition  having  melted  away  before  the  meeting  of  the 
convention.  Charles  W.  Fairbanks  of  Indiana,  one  of 
the  strongest  leaders  in  the  Senate,  was  named  for  Vice 
President. 

The  Democrats  met  in  St.  Louis  some  weeks  later  and 
nominated  Judge  Alton  B.  Parker  of  New  York.  Both 

444 


RAILROAD    RATE   REGULATION  445 

candidates  were  men  of  high  character  and  the  campaign 
was  clean  and  dignified. 

Mr.  Bryan,  who,  for  eight  years  past,  had  been  looked 
upon  as  the  Democratic  leader,  opposed  the  nomination  of 
Parker.  When  Mr.  Parker  became  the  nominee  of  the 
party,  Mr.  Bryan  fell  into  line  and  used  his  efforts  to  se 
cure  a  Democratic  victory,  but  Mr.  Parker  came  far  short 
of  receiving  the  full  party  strength.  Mr.  Roosevelt  was 
therefore  elected  by  a  very  large  majority,  he  receiving 
336  electoral  votes  to  140  for  Parker,  and  a  popular  major 
ity  of  more  than  2,500,000. 

The  Socialist  candidate,  Eugene  V.  Debs,  received  about 
400,000  votes  ;  the  Populist  candidate,  Thomas  E.  Watson, 
120,000,  and  the  Prohibition  candidate,  Silas  C.  Swallow, 
about  260,000  votes.  A  few  hours  after  the  result  of  the 
election  was  known  the  President  made  the  statement  that 
on  no  condition  would  he  be  a  candidate  for  the  office 
again. 

Railroad  Rate  Regulation;  Arbitration  Treaties.  —  The 
short  session  of  the  Fifty-eighth  Congress,  following  the 
election,  was  noted  for  the  sharp  differences  between  the 
President  and  the  Senate. 

The  most  conspicuous  of  these  grew  out  of  the  proposed 
anti-rebate  law,  or  railroad  regulation.  It  seemed  that  both 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  of  1887  and  the  Elkins 
Anti-Rebate  law  of  1902  had  failed  to  reach  the  rebate 
evil  and  Mr.  Roosevelt  urged  in  his  message  of  December, 
1904,  that  an  additional  law  be  enacted.  But  there  was 
great  opposition  in  the  Senate.  The  House  passed  a  bill 
to  the  desired  end  in  February,  1905,  but  the  Senate  re 
fused  to  pass  it  and  the  matter  was  left  over.  Again  in 
December,  1905,  the  President  urged  the  passage  of  such 
a  law  and  every  fair-minded  citizen  hopes  that  he  may 


446      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

in  the  end  succeed  in  obtaining  it.  President  Roosevelt 
arranged  with  eight  foreign  countries  treaties  of  arbitra 
tion  by  which  certain  classes  of  disputes  should  be  settled 
by  The  Hague  tribunal ;  but  these  were  so  changed  by  the 
Senate  that  the  President  refused  to  consider  them  further. 
Santo  Domingo.  —  Again  there  was  a  sharp  contention 
between  the  President  and  the  Senate,  on  account  of  the 
republic  of  Santo  Domingo  on  the  island  of  Haiti.  That 
country,  in  which  one  revolution  had  followed  another, 


CENTER  OF  POPl 

AT  THE  CLOSE  OF  EACH  DECADE  FROM 
1790  TO  1900 


unable  to  pay  its  foreign  creditors,  appealed  to  the  United 
States  to  become  the  custodian  of  a  portion  of  its  revenues. 
Mr.  Roosevelt  thereupon  made  an  agreement  with  the 
Dominican  president  to  that  end  and  submitted  it  to 
the  Senate.  But  the  Senate,  a'fter  long  discussion  of  the 
matter,  failed  either  to  ratify  or  reject  the  agreement. 

OUR  NATION  TO-DAY 

.  Distribution  of  Population.  —  No  other  great  nation  has 
been  peopled  and  developed  so  rapidly  as  our  own.  At 
the  close  of  the  Revolution,  a  century  and  a  quarter  ago, 


Photograph  copyright  1900  by  E  Muller 

BATTLESHIP  "  KENTUCKY  " 


447 


448     SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

the  people,  who  numbered  scarcely  four  millions,  were 
scattered  along  the  eastern  seaboard,  but  few  having 
crossed  the  Appalachian  Mountains.  The  Ohio  Valley 
was  then  the  remote  far  West ;  Texas  and  California  be 
longed  to  Spanish  Mexico ;  Florida  and  the  vast  region  of 
Louisiana  were  in  the  possession  of  Spain,  and  the  owner- 
ship  of  Oregon  was  unsettled.  In  these  regions  the  red 


MINING  IN  THE  WEST 

men  of  the  forest  and  the  wild  animals  roamed  unrestrained, 
as  they  had  done  before  the  coming  of  Columbus. 

Since  then  all  this  has  been  claimed  for  civilization. 
Our  population  now  exceeds  80,000,000,  more  than  half 
of  whom  find  a  home  in  the  great  basin  of  the  Mississippi.1 

1  The  population  by  the  census  of  1900  was,  including  Hawaii  and  Alaska, 
76,303,387.  Of  these  the  native  born  numbered  65,843,302;  the  foreign  born, 
10,460,085.  The  white  population  numbered  66,990,788  ;  negro,  8,840,789  ; 
Chinese,  119,050;  Japanese,  86,000  ;  Indian,  266,760.  See  Census  Report 
I,  Vol.  I,  Part  I,  pp.  482,  483. 


IMMIGRATION 


449 


The  far  West  is  also  rapidly  gaining,  and  with  its  mines, 
its  cattle  ranches,  and  its  orange  groves,  it  has  come  to  be 
of  equal  importance  with  any  other  section. 

Immigration.  —  Such  a  growth  of  our  great  land  would 
have  been  impossible  but  for  the  river  of  humanity  that  is 


SLAVIC  IMMIGRANTS 

flowing  to  our  shores  from  Europe.  For  many  years  after 
the  Revolution  the  immigrants  came  in  small  numbers 
and  not  before  1840  did  they  reach  100,000  a  year. 
The  largest  number  before  the  Civil  War  was  about 
400,000  in  one  year.  In  the  past  few  years  before  1906 
the  arrivals  have  exceeded  a  million  a  year.  Many  of 
these  immigrants  are  among  the  stanchest  and  best  of 
our  population. 

Education  ;  Religion.  —  No  other  country  equals  our  own 
in  the  extent  and  variety  of  its  schools.     Every  state  in 

2G 


450      SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

the  Union  has  its  free  school  system  and  through  it  the 
rudiments  of  an  education  are  offered  free  to  every  child. 
In  addition  are  great  numbers  of  universities,  colleges, 
academies,  denominational  and  private  schools.1 

In  religion  we  are  as  free  as  in  our  personal  liberty. 
Every  man  can  believe  and  preach  what  he  will,  so  long  as 
his  doctrine  and  practice  are  not  subversive  of  the  public 
morals  and  do  not  infringe  the  rights  of  others. 


MODERN  MACHINERY  IN  THE  CORN  BELT 

Art  ;  Sculpture  ;  Music  ;  Literature  ;  Invention.  —  The 
American  people  have,  for  the  most  part,  devoted  their 
energies  to  the  developing  of  the  continent  and  have  given 
less  attention  to  the  fine  arts.  In  art,  in  sculpture,  we 
must  still  find  our  models  in  the  old  masters  of  other  lands  ; 
in  music  we  have  only  made  a  beginning  and  are  still 
dependent  on  the  German  and  the  Italian  ;  in  literature  we 
have  made  a  noble  beginning,  but  we  must  still  bow  to  the 


whole  number  of  public  school  teachers  in  the  United  States  is 
450,000.  Of  these  120,000  are  men  and  330,000  women  ;  21,000  are  colored, 
500  Indians. 


SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES      451 

mother  country,  whose  classic  treasures  are  our  rightful 
inheritance.  But  in  useful  inventions  we  surpass  all  peoples 
of  all  ages.  That  this  one  country  in  a  single  century  has 
given  to  the  world  steam  navigation,  the  electric  telegraph, 
the  cylinder  press,  the  sewing  machine,  the  mower  and 
reaper,  the  telephone,  the  electric  light,  and  electric  rail 
way,  is  the  most  astonishing  fact  in  the  history  of  modern 
progress. 

Our  Greatest  Achievement.  —  The  most  important  achieve 
ment  of  the  American  people  lies  in  the  fact  that  they 
have  solved  the  greatest  of  all  governmental  problems  — 
the  problem  of  self-government  Other  nations  have 
attempted  the  same  in  the  past  and  have  not  succeeded. 
The  United  States  is  the  first  great  nation  to  establish  and 
maintain  a  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and 
for  the  people,  in  which  there  seems  no  tendency  toward 
anarchy  on  the  one  hand,  nor  monarchy  on  the  other. 

But  we  have  much  yet  to  do.  It  is  true  that  we  have 
reached  a  fine  balance  between  national  strength  and  per 
sonal  liberty,  but  there  are  serious  problems  yet  to  be 
solved,  and  their  right  solution  will  depend  on  the  personal 
virtue  of  the  people.  We  have  before  us  such  problems 
as  grow  out  of  the  commingling  of  many  peoples  from 
many  lands,  the  tendency  to  monopoly  in  the  business 
world,  and,  most  serious  of  all,  the  tendency  to  private 
graft  in  public  officials.  These  and  other  problems  the 
American  people  must  courageously  grapple  with,  and  on 
their  success  will  rest  the  future  of  our  great  land. 


APPENDIX    I 

CONSTITUTION    OF   THE    UNITED 
STATES    OF   AMERICA1 

WE  THE  PEOPLE  of  the  United  States,  in  Order  to  form  a  more  per 
fect  Union,  establish  Justice,  insure  domestic  Tranquillity,  provide  for 
the  common  defence,  promote  the  general  Welfare,  and  secure  the 
Blessings  of  Liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  Posterity,  do  ordain  and 
establish  this  CONSTITUTION  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE.  I. 

SECTION,  i.  All  legislative  Powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in 
a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives. 

SECTION.  2.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of 
Members  chosen  every  second  Year  by  the  People  of  the  several  States, 
and  the  Electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  Qualifications  requisite  for 
Electors  of  the  most  numerous  Branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  Age  of  twenty-five  Years,  and  been  seven  Years  a  Citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  Inhabitant  of 
that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

Representatives  and  direct  Taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 

several   States  which   may  be    included  within    this  Union,  according 

to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to 

the  whole  Number  of  free  Persons,  including  those  bound  to  Service 

for  a  Term  of  Years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all 

other  Persons.     The  actual  Enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three 

Years  after  the  first  Meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and 

1  Reprinted  from  the  text  issued  by  the  State  Department. 

453 


454  APPENDIX    I 

within  every  subsequent  Term  of  ten  Years,  in  such  Manner  as  they 
shall  by  Law  direct.  The  number  of  Representatives  shall  not  exceed 
one  for  every  thirty  Thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  Least  one 
Representative  ;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of 
New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  chuse  three,  Massachusetts  eight, 
Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five,  New- 
York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight,  Delaware  one,  Mary 
land  six,  Virginia  ten,  North  Carolina  five,  South  Carolina  five,  and 
Georgia  three. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  Representation  from  any  State,  the 
Executive  Authority  thereof  shall  issue  Writs  of  Election  to  fill  such 
Vacancies. 

The  House  of  Representatives  shall  chuse  their  Speaker  and  other 
Officers  ;  and  shall  have  the  sole  Power  of  Impeachment. 

SECTION.  3.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed 
of  two  Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for 
six  Years ;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  Vote. 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  Consequence  of  the 
first  Election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three 
Classes.  The  Seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  Class  shall  be  vacated 
at  the  Expiration  of  the  second  Year,  of  the  second  Class  at  the  Expira 
tion  of  the  fourth  Year,  and  of  the  third  Class  at  the  Expiration  of  the 
sixth  Year,  so  that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every  second  Year ;  and  if 
Vacancies  happen  by  Resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the  Recess  of 
the  Legislature  of  any  State,  the  Executive  thereof  may  make  tempo 
rary  Appointments  until  the  next  Meeting  of  the  Legislature,  which 
shall  then  fill  such  Vacancies. 

No  Person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
Age  of  thirty  Years,  and  been  nine  Years  a  Citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  Inhabitant  of  that  State  for 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

The  Vice  President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  Vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

The  Senate  shall  chuse  their  other  Officers,  and  also  a  President 
pro  tempore,  in  the  Absence  of  the  Vice  President,  or  when  he  shall 
exercise  the  Office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  Power  to  try  all  Impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  Purpose,  they  shall  be  on  Oath  or  Affirmation. 
When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice 


APPENDIX   1  455 

shall  preside :  And  no  Person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  Concur 
rence  of  two  thirds  of  the  Members  present. 

Judgment  in  Cases  of  Impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than 
to  removal  from  Office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any 
Office  of  honor,  Trust  or  Profit  under  the  United  States  :  but  the  Party 
convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  Indictment,  Trial, 
Judgment  and  Punishment,  according  to  law. 

SECTION.  4.  The  Times,  Places  and  Manner  of  holding  Elections 
for  Senators  and  Representatives,  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by 
the  Legislature  thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  Law  make 
or  alter  such  Regulations,  except  as  to  the  Places  of  chusing  Senators. 

The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  Year,  and  such 
Meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall 
by  Law  appoint  a  different  Day. 

SECTION.  5.  Each  House  shall  be  the  Judge  of  the  Elections, 
Returns  and  Qualifications  of  its  own  Members,  and  a  Majority  of 
each  shall  constitute  a  Quorum  to  do  Business ;  but  a  smaller  Number 
may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the 
Attendance  of  absent  Members,  in  such  Manner,  and  under  such  Penal 
ties  as  each  House  may  provide. 

Each  House  may  determine  the  Rules  of  its  Proceedings,  Punish 
its  Members  for  disorderly  Behaviour,  and,  with  the  Concurrence  of 
two  thirds,  expel  a  member. 

Each  House  shall  keep  a  Journal  of  its  Proceedings,  and  from 
time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  Parts  as  may  in  their 
Judgment  require  Secrecy ;  and  the  Yeas  and  Nays  of  the  Members  of 
either  House  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  Desire  of  one  fifth  of  those 
Present,  be  entered  on  the  Journal. 

Neither  House,  during  the  Session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the 
Consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any 
other  Place  than  that  in  which  the  two  Houses  shall  be  sitting. 

SECTION.  6.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a 
Compensation  for  their  Services,  to  be  ascertained  by  Law,  and  paid 
out  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  Cases, 
except  Treason,  Felony  and  Breach  of  the  Peace,  be  privileged  from 
Arrest  during  their  Attendance  at  the  Session  of  their  respective 
Houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same ;  and  for  any 
Speech  or  Debate  in  either  House,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any 
other  Place. 


456  APPENDIX    I 

No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  Time  for  which  he 
was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  Office  under  the  Authority  of 
the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  Emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  encreased  during  such  time ;  and  no  Person 
holding  any  Office  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  a  Member  of  either 
House  during  his  Continuance  in  Office. 

SECTION.  7.  All  Bills  for  raising  Revenue  shall  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur 
with  Amendments  as  on  other  Bills. 

Every  Bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a  Law,  be  presented  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States ;  If  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but 
if  not  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  Objections,  to  that  House  in  which  it 
shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  Objections  at  large  on  their 
Journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  Reconsideration  two 
thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the  Bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together 
with  the  Objections,  to  the  other  House,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be 
reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two  thirds  of  that  House,  it  shall 
become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  Cases  the  Votes  of  both  Houses  shall 
be  determined  by  Yeas  and  Nays,  and  the  Names  of  the  Persons  voting 
for  and  against  the  Bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  Journal  of  each  House 
respectively.  If  any  Bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within 
ten  Days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him, 
the  same  shall  be  a  Law,  in  like  Manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless 
the  Congress  by  their  Adjournment  prevent  its  Return,  in  which  Case 
it  shall  not  be  a  Law. 

Every  Order,  Resolution,  or  Vote  to  which  the  Concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a 
question  of  Adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States  ;  and  before  the  Same  shall  take  Effect,  shall  be  approved 
by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two  thirds 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  Rules  and 
Limitations  prescribed  in  the  Case  of  a  Bill. 

SECTION.  8.  The  Congress  shall  have  Power  To  lay  and  collect 
Taxes,  Duties,  Imposts  and  Excises,  to  pay  the  Debts  and  provide  for 
the  common  Defence  and  general  Welfare  of  the  United  States  ;  but  all 
Duties,  Imposts  and  Excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United 
States ; 

To  borrow  Money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States ; 


APPENDIX   I  457 

To  regulate  Commerce  with  foreign  Nations,  and  among  the  several 
States,  and  with  the  Indian  Tribes ; 

To  establish  an  uniform  Rule  of  Naturalization,  and  uniform  Laws 
on  the  subject  of  Bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States  ; 

To  coin  Money,  regulate  the  Value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  Coin,  and 
fix  the  Standard  of  Weights  and  Measures  ; 

To  provide  for  the  Punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and 
current  Coin  of  the  United  States ; 

To  establish  Post  Offices  and  post  Roads ; 

To  promote  the  Progress  of  Science  and  useful  Arts,  by  securing 
for  limited  Times  to  Authors  and  Inventors  the  exclusive  Right  to 
their  respective  Writings  and  Discoveries; 

To  constitute  Tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme  Court ; 

To  define  and  punish  Piracies  and  Felonies  committed  on  the  high 
Seas,  and  Offences  against  the  Law  of  Nations  ; 

To  declare  War,  grant  Letters  of  Marque  and  Reprisal,  and  make 
Rules  concerning  Captures  on  Land  and  Water ; 

To  raise  and  support  Armies,  but  no  Appropriation  of  Money  to  that 
Use  shall  be  for  a  longer  Term  than  two  Years ; 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  Navy ; 

To  make  Rules  for  the  Government  and  Regulation  of  the  land  and 
naval  Forces ; 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  Militia  to  execute  the  Laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  Insurrections  and  repel  Invasions ; 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining,  the  Militia,  and 
for  governing  such  Part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  Service 
of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively,  the  Appoint 
ment  of  the  Officers,  and  the  Authority  of  training  the  Militia  according 
to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress ; 

To  exercise  exclusive  Legislation  in  all  Cases  whatsoever,  over 
such  District  (not  exceeding  ten  Miles  square)  as  may,  by  Cession  of 
particular  States,  and  the  Acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  Seat  of 
the  Government  of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  Authority 
over  all  Places  purchased  by  the  Consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the 
State  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  Erection  of  Forts,  Magazines, 
Arsenals,  dock-Yards,  and  other  needful  Buildings  ;  —  And 

To  make  all  Laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying 
into  Execution  the  foregoing  Powers,  and  all  other  Powers  vested  by 
this  Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any 
Department  or  Officer  thereof. 


458  APPENDIX   I 

SECTION.  9.  The  Migration  or  Importation  of  such  Persons  as  any 
of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  pro 
hibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  Year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  eight,  but  a  Tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  Importation,  not 
exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  Person. 

The  Privilege  of  the  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  shall  not  be  suspended, 
unless  when  in  Cases  of  Rebellion  or  Invasion  the  public  Safety  may 
require  it. 

No  Bill  of  Attainder  or  ex  post  facto  Law  shall  be  passed. 

No  Capitation,  or  other  direct,  Tax,  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  Propor 
tion  to  the  Census  or  Enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

No  Tax  or  Duty  shall  be  laid  on  Articles  exported  from  any  State. 

No  Preference  shall  be  given  by  any  Regulation  of  Commerce  or 
Revenue  to  the  Ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another :  nor  shall 
Vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  State,  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay 
Duties  in  another. 

No  Money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treasury,  but  in  Consequence 
of  Appropriations  made  by  Law ;  and  a  regular  Statement  and  Account 
of  the  Receipts  and  Expenditures  of  all  public  Money  shall  be  pub 
lished  from  time  to  time. 

No  Title  of  Nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States  :  And  no 
Person  holding  any  Office  of  Profit  or  Trust  under  them,  shall,  with 
out  the  Consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  Emolument, 
Office,  or  Title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  King,  Prince,  or  for 
eign  State. 

SECTION.  10.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  Treaty,  Alliance,  or 
Confederation  ;  grant  Letters  of  Marque  and  Reprisal ;  coin  Money ; 
emit  Bills  of  Credit ;  make  any  thing  but  gold  and  silver  Coin  a  Tender 
in  Payment  of  Debts  ;  pass  any  Bill  of  Attainder,  ex  post  facto  Law 
or  Law  impairing  the  Obligation  of  Contracts,  or  grant  any  Title  of 
Nobility. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  Consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  Im 
posts  or  Duties  on  Imports  or  Exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely 
necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  Laws :  and  the  net  Produce  of  all 
Duties  and  Imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  Imports  or  Exports,  shall  be 
for  the  Use  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States ;  and  all  such  Laws 
shall  be  subject  to  the  Revision  and  Controul  of  the  Congress. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  Consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  Duty  of 
Tonnage,  keep  Troops,  or  Ships  of  War  in  time  of  Peace,  enter  into 


APPENDIX   I  459 

any  Agreement  or  Compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  Power, 
or  engage  in  War,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  Danger 
as  will  not  admit  of  Delay. 

ARTICLE.  II 

SECTION,  i.  The  executive  Power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President 
of  the  United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  Office  during  the 
Term  of  four  Years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice  President,  chosen  for 
the  same  Term,  be  elected,  as  follows 

Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  Manner  as  the  Legislature  thereof 
may  direct,  a  Number  of  Electors,  equal  to  the  whole  Number  of 
Senators  and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in 
the  Congress  :  but  no  Senator  or  Representative,  or  Person  holding  an 
Office  of  Trust  or  Profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed 
an  Elector. 

The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by 
Ballot  for  two  Persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  Inhabit 
ant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  List  of 
all  the  Persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  Number  of  Votes  for  each  ;  which 
List  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  Seat  of 
the  Government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of 
the  Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  Presence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  Certificates,  and  the 
Votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  Person  having  the  greatest  Number 
of  Votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  Number  be  a  Majority  of  the 
whole  Number  of  Electors  appointed ;  and  if  there  be  more  than  one 
who  have  such  Majority,  and  have  an  equal  Number  of  Votes,  then  the 
House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately  chuse  by  Ballot  one  of 
them  for  President;  and  if  no  Person  have  a  Majority,  then  from  "the 
five  highest  on  the  List  the  said  House  shall  in  like  Manner  chuse  the 
President.  But  in  chusing  the  President,  the  Votes  shall  be  taken  by 
States,  the  Representation  from  each  State  having  one  Vote ;  A  quo 
rum  for  this  Purpose  shall  consist  of  a  Member  or  Members  from  two 
thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  Majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  neces 
sary  to  a  Choice.  In  every  Case,  after  the  Choice  of  the  President,  the 
Person  having  the  greatest  Number  of  Votes  of  the  Electors  shall  be 
the  Vice  President.  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more  who  have 
equal  Votes,  the  Senate  shall  chuse  from  them  by  Ballot  the  Vice 
President. 


460  APPENDIX    I 

The  Congress  may  determine  the  Time  of  chusing  the  Electors,  and 
the  Day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  Votes ;  which  Day  shall  be  the 
same  throughout  the  United  States. 

No  Person  except  a  natural  born  Citizen,  or  a  Citizen  of  the  United 
States,  at  the  time  of  the  Adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligi 
ble  to  the  Office  of  President ;  neither  shall  any  Person  be  eligible  to 
that  Office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  Age  of  thirty-five  Years, 
and  been  fourteen  Years  a  Resident  within  the  United  States. 

In  Case  of  the  Removal  of  the  President  from  Office,  or  of  his 
Death,  Resignation,  or  Inability  to  discharge  the  Powers  and  Duties  of 
the  said  Office,  the  Same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice  President,  and  the 
Congress  may  by  Law  provide  for  the  Case  of  Removal,  Death,  Resig 
nation  or  Inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice  President,  declaring 
what  Officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  Officer  shall  act 
accordingly,  until  the  Disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be 
elected. 

The  President  shall,  at  stated  Times,  receive  for  his  Services,  a 
Compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  Increased  nor  diminished  during 
the  Period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive 
within  that  Period  any  other  Emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any 
of  them. 

Before  he  enter  on  the  Execution  of  his  Office,  he  shall  take  the  fol 
lowing  Oath  or  Affirmation  :  — 

"  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the 
Office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my 
Ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States." 

SECTION.  2.  The  President  shall  be  Commander  in  Chief  of  the 
Army  and  Navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  Militia  of  the  several 
States,  when  called  into  the  actual  Service  of  the  United  States ;  he 
may  require  the  Opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  Officer  in  each  of 
the  executive  Departments,  upon  any  Subject  relating  to  the  Duties  of 
their  respective  Offices,  and  he  shall  have  Power  to  grant  Reprieves  and 
Pardons  for  Offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  Cases  of 
Impeachment. 

He  shall  have  Power,  by  and  with  the  Advice  and  Consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  Treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators  present 
concur ;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  Advice  and  Con 
sent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  Ambassadors,  other  public  Ministers 


APPENDIX    I  461 

and  Consuls,  Judges  of  the  supreme  Court,  and  all  other  Officers  of 
the  United  States,  whose  Appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  pro 
vided  for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  Law :  but  the  Congress 
may  by  Law  vest  the  Appointment  of  such  inferior  Officers,  as  they  think 
proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  Courts  of  Law,  or  in  the  Heads  of 
Departments. 

The  President  shall  have  Power  to  fill  up  all  Vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the  Recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  Commissions 
which  shall  expire  at  the  End  of  their  next  Session. 

SECTION.  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  Infor 
mation  of  the  State  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  Considera 
tion  such  Measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he 
may,  on  extraordinary  Occasions,  convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of 
them,  and  in  Case  of  Disagreement  between  them,  with  Respect  to  the 
Time  of  Adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  Time  as  he  shall 
think  proper;  he  shall  receive  Ambassadors  and  other  public  Minis 
ters  ;  he  shall  take  Care  that  the  Laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall 
Commission  all  the  Officers  of  the  United  States. 

SECTION.  4.  The  President,  Vice  President  and  all  civil  Officers  of 
the  United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  Office  on  Impeachment  for, 
and  Conviction  of,  Treason,  Bribery,  or  other  high  Crimes  and  Misde 
meanors. 

ARTICLE.   Ill 

SECTION,  i .  The  judicial  Power  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  vested 
in  one  supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  Courts  as  the  Congress 
may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  Judges,  both  of 
the  supreme  and  inferior  Courts,  shall  hold  their  Offices  during  good 
Behaviour,  and  shall,  at  stated  Times,  receive  for  their  Services,  a  Com 
pensation,  which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in 
Office. 

SECTION.  2.  The  judicial  Power  shall  extend  to  all  Cases,  in  Law 
and  Equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  Laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  Author 
ity  ;  —  to  all  Cases  affecting  Ambassadors,  other  public  Ministers  and 
Consuls; — to  all  Cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  Jurisdiction;  —  to 
Controversies  to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  Party ;  — to  Con 
troversies  between  two  or  more  States  ;  —  between  a  State  and  Citizens 
of  another  State  ;  —  between  Citizens  of  different  States,  —  between 
Citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  Lands  under  Grants  of  different 


462  APPENDIX   I 

States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  Citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  States, 
Citizens,  or  subjects. 

In  all  Cases  affecting  Ambassadors,  other  public  Ministers  and  Con 
suls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  Party,  the  supreme  Court 
shall  have  original  Jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  Cases  before  mentioned 
the  supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  Jurisdiction,  both  as  to  Law  and 
Fact,  with  such  Exceptions,  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress 
shall  make. 

The  Trial  of  all  Crimes,  except  in  Cases  of  Impeachment,  shall  be 
by  Jury  ;  and  such  Trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  Crimes 
shall  have  been  committed ;  but  when  not  committed  within  any  State, 
the  Trial  shall  be  at  such  Place  or  Places  as  the  Congress  may  by  Law 
have  directed. 

SECTION.  3.  Treason  against  the  United  States,  shall  consist  only 
in  levying  War  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  Enemies,  giving 
them  Aid  and  Comfort.  No  Person  shall  be  convicted  of  Treason 
unless  on  the  Testimony  of  two  Witnesses  to  the  same  overt  Act,  or  on 
Confession  in  open  Court. 

The  Congress  shall  have  Power  to  declare  the  Punishment  of 
Treason,  but  no  Attainder  of  Treason  shall  work  Corruption  of  Blood, 
or  Forfeiture  except  during  the  Life  of  the  Person  attainted. 

ARTICLE.   IV 

SECTION,  i.  Full  Faith  and  Credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to 
the  public  Acts,  Records,  and  judicial  Proceedings  of  every  other  State. 
And  the  Congress  may  by  general  Laws  prescribe  the  Manner  in 
which  such  Acts,  Records  and  Proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the 
effect  thereof. 

SECTION.  2.  The  Citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
Privileges  and  Immunities  of  Citizens  in  the  several  States. 

A  Person  charged  in  any  State  with  Treason,  Felony,  or  other 
Crime,  who  shall  flee  from  Justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall 
on  Demand  of  the  executive  Authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled, 
be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  Jurisdiction  of  the 
Crime. 

No  Person  held  to  Service  or  Labour  in  one  State,  under  the  Laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  Consequence  of  any  Law  or 
Regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  Service  or  Labour,  but  shall 


APPENDIX    I  463 

be  delivered  up  on  Claim  of  the  Party  to  whom  such  Service  or  Labour 
may  be  due. 

SECTION.  3.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into 
this  Union;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the 
Jurisdiction  of  any  other  State ;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  Junc 
tion  of  two  or  more  States,  or  Parts  of  States,  without  the  Consent  of 
the  Legislatures  of  the  States  concerned  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

The  Congress  shall  have  Power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  need 
ful  Rules  and  Regulations  respecting  the  Territory  or  other  Property 
belonging  to  the  United  States ;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall 
be  so  construed  as  to  Prejudice  any  Claims  of  the  United  States,  or 
of  any  particular  State. 

SECTION.  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this 
Union  a  Republican  Form  of  Government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them 
against  Invasion ;  and  on  Application  of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the 
Executive  (when  the  Legislature  cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic 
Violence. 

ARTICLE.  V 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary,  shall  propose  Amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the 
Application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall 
call  a  Convention  for  proposing  Amendments,  which,  in  either  case, 
shall  be  valid  to  all  Intents  and  Purposes  as  part  of  this  Constitution, 
when  ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  several  States, 
or  by  Conventions  in  three  fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other 
Mode  of  Ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress  ;  Provided  that 
no  Amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  Year  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  Manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth 
Clauses  in  the  Ninth  Section  of  the  first  Article ;  and  that  no  State, 
without  its  Consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  Suffrage  in  the 
Senate. 

ARTICLE.  VI 

All  Debts'  contracted  and  Engagements  entered  into,  before  the 
Adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United 
States  under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the  Confederation. 

This  Constitution,  and  the  Laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall 
be  made  in  Pursuance  thereof;  and  all  Treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 
made,  under  the  Authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme 


464  APPENDIX   I 

Law  of  the  land  ;  and  the  Judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby, 
any  thing  in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  Contrary  not 
withstanding. 

The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the 
Members  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judi 
cial  Officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall 
be  bound  by  Oath  or  Affirmation,  to  support  this  Constitution  ;  but  no 
religious  Test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  Qualification  to  any  Office  or 
public  Trust  under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE.  VII 

The  Ratification  of  the  Conventions  of  nine  States,  shall  be  sufficient 
for  the  Establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  rati 
fying  the  Same. 

THE   AMENDMENTS 
I  " 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion, 
or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of 
speech,  or  of  the  press ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assem 
ble,  and  to  petition  the  Government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

II 

A  well-regulated  Militia,  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free 
State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  Arms,  shall  not  be 
infringed. 

Ill 

No  Soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace  be  quartered  in  any  house,  without 
the  consent  of  the  Owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be 
prescribed  by  law. 

IV 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers, 
and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be 
violated,  and  no  Warrants  shall  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  sup 
ported  by  Oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to 
be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 


APPENDIX   1  465 

V 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise  infamous 
crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  Grand  Jury,  except  in 
cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  Militia,  when  in 
actual  service  in  time  of  War  or  public  danger ;  nor  shall  any  person 
be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or 
limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  Criminal  Case  to  be  witness 
against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without 
due  process  of  law ;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use, 
without  just  compensation. 

VI 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a 
speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district 
wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have 
been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature 
and  cause  of  the  accusation ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses 
against  him ;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  Witnesses  in 
his  favor,  and  to  have  the  Assistance  of  Counsel  for  his  defence. 

VII 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no 
fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  Court  of  the 
United  States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

VIII 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed, 
nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

IX 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution,  of  certain  rights,  shall  not  be 
construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

X 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution 
nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respec 
tively,  or  to  the  people. 

2H 


466  APPENDIX  I 


XI 

The  Judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to 
extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against 
one  of  the  United  States  by  Citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  Citizens  or 
Subjects  of  any  Foreign  State. 

XII 

The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  states,  and  vote  by  ballot 
for  President  and  Vice  President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be 
an  inhabitant  of  the  same  state  with  themselves ;  they  shall  name  in 
their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots 
the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct 
lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for 
as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  lists 
they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  gov 
ernment  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate ; 
-  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates  and  the  votes  shall 
then  be  counted  ;  —  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for 
President,  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have  such 
majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not 
exceeding  three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House 
of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President. 
But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  states,  the 
representation  from  each  state  having  one  vote ;  a  quorum  for  this 
purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the 
states,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  states  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President 
whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the 
fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall  act 
as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional  dis 
ability  of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  as  Vice-President,  shall  be  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person 
have  a  majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the 
Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose 
shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  senators,  and  a 


APPENDIX   I  467 

majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no 
person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be 
eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

XIII 

SECTION  i.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a 
punishment  for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted, 
shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  juris 
diction. 

SECTION  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 

XIV 

SECTION  i.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any 
law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States  :  nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor  deny  to  any  person  within 
its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

SECTION  2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several 
states  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  num 
ber  of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when 
the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President 
and  Vice  President  of  the  United  States,  Representatives  in  Congress, 
the  Executive  and  Judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the 
Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such 
State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion,  or  other 
crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  pro 
portion  which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole 
number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

SECTION  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Con 
gress,  or  elector  of  President  and  Vice  President,  or  hold  any  office, 
civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who, 
having  previously  taken  an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an 
officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  legislature, 
or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Con 
stitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or 


468  APPENDIX   I 

rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies 
thereof.  But  Congress  may  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House, 
remove  such  disability. 

SECTION  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States, 
authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions 
and  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall 
not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall 
assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or 
rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  eman 
cipation  of  any  slave ;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations  and  claims  shall 
be  held  illegal  and  void. 

SECTION  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appro 
priate  legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

XV 

SECTION  i.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall 
not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on 
account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

SECTION  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article 
by  appropriate  legislation. 


APPENDIX    II 

TABLE  OF  THE   STATES 


NAME 

DATE  OF 
ADMISSION 

ORIGIN  OF  NAME 

AREA 
SQUARE 
MILES 

POPULA 
TION, 
1900 

i.     Delaware    ....         ( 

Dec.  7,  1787 

In  honor  of  Lord  Delaware 

2,050 

184,735 

2.     Pennsylvania    .    . 

Dec.  12,  1787 

Latin,  Penn's  Woods    .    .    . 

45»2I5 

6,302,115 

3.     New  Jersey   .    .    .    ^ 

Dec.  18,  1787 

In    honor    of    governor    of 

1,883,669 

o 

Jersey  Island. 

4.     Georgia  '3 
5.     Connecticut   .    .    .  -t- 
6.     Massachusetts  .    .    £ 

Jan.  2,  1788 
Jan.  9,  1788 
Feb.  6,  1788 

In  honor  of  George  II      .    . 
Indian,  Long  River  .... 
The  place  of  Hills     .... 

59,475 
4,990 
8,315 

2,216,331 

908,355 
2,805,346 

7.     Maryland  .    .    .    .    o 

April  28,  1788 

In  honor  of  Queen  Henri 

12,210 

1,190,050 

U 

etta  Maria,  wife  of 

Jj 

Charles  I. 

8.     South  Carolina  .    .    ~ 
9.     New  Hampshire  .  "S 
10      Virginia                  •  ^5 

May  23,  1788 
June  21,  1788 
June  25   1788 

In  honor  of  Charles  II     .    . 
Hampshire,  England    .    .    . 
In  honor  of  Elizabeth    the 

30,570 

9,3°5 

1,340,316 
411,588 

rt 

"  Virgin  Queen." 

' 

'      ' 

ir.     New  York  .   .  .   .  " 

July  26,  1788 

In  honor  of  Duke  of  York  . 

49,I7° 

7,268,012 

12.     North  Carolina     . 

Nov.  21,  1789 

In  honor  of  Charles  II      .    . 

52,250 

1,893,810 

13.     Rhode  Island    .    . 

May  29,  1790 

Rhodes,    an    island    in    the 
^Egean  Sea                  . 

1,250 

428,556 

14.     Vermont  admitted     .    . 

1791 

French,  Green  Mt  

9,565 

343,641 

15.     Kentucky  admitted  .    . 

1792 

Indian,    Dark    and    Bloody 

40,400 

Ground.  (?) 

16.     Tennessee  admitted  .    . 

1796 

Indian,     River     with     the 

42,050 

2,020,616 

Great  Bend. 

17.     Ohio  admitted    .... 

1803 

Indian,   Beautiful  River  .    . 

41  ,060 

4.157,545 

18.     Louisiana  admitted  .    . 

1812 

In  honor  of  Louis  XIV    .    . 

48,720 

1,381,625 

19.     Indiana  admitted  .    .    . 

1816 

Indian  Ground    

36,350 

2,516,462 

20.     Mississippi  admitted     . 

1817 

Indian,  Father  of  Waters    . 

46,810 

I>551»270 

21.     Illinois  admitted    .    .    . 

1818 

Indian,  Tribe  of  Men  .    .    . 

56,650 

4,821,550 

22.     Alabama  admitted     .    . 

1819 

Indian,  Place  of  Rest  .    .    . 

52,250 

1,828,697 

23.     Maine  admitted  .... 

1820 

The  main  land    

33,04° 

694,466 

24.     Missouri  admitted     .    . 

1821 

Indian,  Muddy  River  .    .    . 

69,4I5 

3,106,665 

25.     Arkansas  admitted    .    . 

1836 

From  a  tribe  of  Indians    .    . 

53,850 

1,311,564 

26.     Michigan  admitted    .    . 
27.     Florida  admitted    .    .    . 

1837 
1845 

Indian,  Great  Lake  .... 
Spanish,  Flowering  .... 

58,9^5 
58,680 

2,420,982 
528,542 

28.     Texas  admitted  .... 

1845 

From  a  tribe  of  Indians    .    . 

265,780 

3,048,710 

29      Iowa  admitted    .... 

1846 

Indian,  Sleepy  Ones     .    .    . 

56,025 

2,231,853 

30.     Wisconsin  admitted  .    . 

1848 

Indian,  Rushing  Channel    . 

56,040 

2,069,042 

31.     California  admitted  .    . 

1850 

From    an    old    Spanish    ro 

158,360 

1,485,053 

mance. 

32.     Minnesota  admitted  .    . 

1858 

Indian,  Cloudy  Water  .    .    . 

83,365 

i,75i,394 

33.     Oregon  admitted    .    .    . 

1859 

Spanish,  Wild  Marjoram     . 

96,030 

4I3,536 

34.     Kansas  admitted    .    .    . 

1861 

Indian,  Smoky  Water  .    .    . 

82,080 

i,470,495 

35.     West  Virginia  admitted 

1863 

From  Virginia    

24,780 

958,800 

36.     Nevada  admitted  .    .    . 

1864 

Spanish,  Snow-covered    .    . 

110,700 

42,335 

469 


470 


APPENDIX   II 


TABLE  OF  THE   STATES  —  CONTINUED 


AREA 

POPULA 

NAME 

DATE  OF 
ADMISSION 

ORIGIN  OF  NAME 

SQUARE 
MILES 

TION, 
1900 

37.     Nebraska  admitted    .    . 

1867 

Indian,  Shallow  Water     .    . 

77>5™ 

1,068,539 

38.     Colorado  admitted     .    . 
39.     North  Dakota  admitted 

1876 
1889 

Spanish,  Red  or  Ruddy  .    . 
Indian,  Allied  (referring  to 

103,925 
7°.795 

539.  7°° 
319,146 

Indian  tribes). 

40.     South  Dakota  admitted 

1889 

Indian,  the  same    

77,650 

401,570 

41.     Montana  admitted     .    . 

1889 

Spanish,     Land    of    Moun 

146,080 

243.329 

tains. 

42.     Washington  admitted  . 

1889 

Named  after  George  Wash 

69,180 

518,103 

ington. 

43.     Idaho  admitted     .     .    . 

1890 

Indian,  Gem  of  the  Moun 

84,800 

161,772 

tains. 

44.     Wyoming  admitted  .    . 
45.     Utah  admitted    .... 

1890 
1896 

Indian,  Extensive  Plain  .    . 
Indian,  Mountain  Home 

97,890 
84,970 

92.531 
276,749 

THE  TERRITORIES,   ETC. 


ORGANIZED 

SQUARE  MILES 

POPULATION 

District  of  Columbia  
New  Mexico  

1791 
1850 

64 

122,580 

278,718 

1863 

Oklahoma  
Indian  Territory  
Alaska  (purchased  from  Russia)  .  .  . 

1890 
1834 
1867 

39,030 
31,400 
590,884 

398,245 
391,960 
63,592 

Porto  Rico 

7  606 

Philippines  (Treaty)  
Guam  (Treaty)  
Tutuila,  etc  

1899 
1899 
1899 

j,UUU 

II5,O2O 
175 
5OO 

7.635,426 
9,000 
6,000 

NOTE.  —  The  total  surface  of  continental  United  States  is  2,970,230  sq.  mi. ;  including 
Alaska  and  island  possessions  it  is  3,690,822  sq.  mi.  The  population  of  continental  United 
States  in  1900  was  75,994,575;  including  all  possessions  it  was  84,233,069. 


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APPENDIX    IV 

TABLE   OF  THE  CITIES   EXCEEDING   25,OOO   INHABITANTS 


CITY 

POPULATION 

CITY 

POPULATION 

1900 

189O 

1900 

1890 

Akron,  Ohio   

42,728 

27,601 

Dayton,  Ohio     

85,333 

61,220 

Albany,  N.Y  
Allegheny,  Pa  

129^896 

94,923 
105,287 

Denver,  Colo  
Des  Moines,  Iowa     .    .    . 

133,859 
62,139 

106,713 
50,093 

Allentown,  Pa  

35,416 

25,228 

Detroit,  .\Jich  

285,704 

205,876 

Altoona,  Pa 

oft  070 

__    -307 

TliiVmrmf*     Tnwa 

36,297 

Atlanta,  Ga  

j°,y/j 
89,872 

65,533 

Duluth,  Minn  

52,969 

33,  "5 

Atlantic  City,  N.J.    . 

27,838 

Easton,  Pa  

25,238 

14,481 

Auburn,  N.Y  

30,345 

25^858 

East  St.  Louis,  111.    .    .    . 

29,655 

Augusta,  Ga   .    .    ... 
Baltimore,  Md   .... 

39,44i 
508,957 

33,3oo 
434,439 

Elizabeth,  NJ  
Elmira,  N.Y  

52,130 
35,672 

37)764 
30,893 

Bay  City,  Mich.    .    .    . 

27,628 

27,839 

Erie,  Pa   

^2,733 

40,634 

Bayonne,  N.J  
Binghamton,  NY... 

32,722 

39,647 

Evansville,  Ind  
Fall  River,  Mass.      .    .    . 

59,oo7 
104,863 

50,756 
74,398 

Birmingham,  Ala.     .    . 

38,415 

26*178 

Fitchburg,  Mass  

3I>531 

22,037 

Boston,  Mass  

560,892 

448,477 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind  

35,393 

Bridgeport,  Conn.     .    . 

70,996 

48,866 

Fort  Worth,  Tex  

26,688 

23,076 

Brockton,  Mass.    .    . 

40,063 

27,294 

Galveston,  Tex  

37,789 

29,084 

Buffalo,  N.Y  

352,387 

255,664 

Gloucester.  Mass.     .    .    . 

26,121 

24,651 

Butte,  Mont 

30  470 

jo  723 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

Q-    rfo  c 

60,278 

Cambridge,  Mass.     .    . 

91,886 

70,028 

Harrisburg,  Pa  

5o!l67 

39,385 

Camden,  N  J  
Canton,  Ohio  

75,935 
30,667 

58,313 
26,189 

Hartford,  Conn  
Haverhill,  Mass  

79,850 

37,T75 

53,230 
27,412 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa  .    . 
Charleston,  S.C.     .    .    . 
Chattanooga,  Tenn.     . 

25,656 
55,807 
30,154 

18,020 
54,955 
29,100 

Hoboken,  N.J  
Holyoke,  Mass  
Honolulu,  Hawaii    .    .    . 

59,364 
45,712 
39,306 

43,648 
35,637 
22,907 

Chelsea   Mass 

0 

H               T 

,. 

Chester,  Pa  

33»988 

27,909 
20,226 

Indianapolis,  Ind.      .    .    . 

44,O33 
169,164 

27,557 
105,436 

Chicago,  111  

1,698,575 

1,099,850 

Jackson,  Mich  

25,180 

20,798 

Cincinnati,  Ohio    .    .    . 

325,902 

296,908 

Jacksonville,  Fla.     .    .    . 

28,429 

17,201 

Cleveland,  Ohio    .    .    . 

381,768 

261,353 

Jersey  City,  N.J.       .    .    . 

206,433 

163  003 

Columbus,  Ohio    .    .    . 
Council  Bluffs,  Iowa    . 

125,560 
25,802 

88,150 
2i,474 

Johnstown,  Pa    
Joliet,  111  

35,936 
29,353 

21,805 
23,264 

Covington,  Ky    .... 

42,938 

37,  371 

Joplin,  Mo  

26,023 

9,943 

Dallas,  Tex  
Davenport,  Iowa   .    .    . 

42,638 
35,254 

38,067 
26,872 

Kansas  City,  Kans.  .    .    . 
Kansas  City,  Mo   .... 

l63,752 

38,316 
132,716 

472 


APPENDIX    IV 
TABLE   OF  THE  CITIES  — CONTINUED 


473 


CITY 

POPULATION 

CITY 

POPULATION 

19OO 

189O 

1900 

189O 

Knoxville,  Tenn.  .    .    . 

32,637 

22,535 

Rochester,  N.Y  

162,608 

133,896 

La  Crosse,  Wis.     .   .    . 

28,895 

25,090 

Rockford,  111  

^1  O^I 

23,584 

Lancaster,  Pa  

4i,459 

32,011 

Sacramento,  Cal  

29)282 

JJ  OWT 
26,386 

Lawrence,  Mass.  .    .    . 

62,559 

44,654 

Lexington,  Ky  

26,369 

21,567 

Saginaw,  Mich  

42,345 

46,322 

Lincoln,  Nebr  
Little  Rock,  Ark.  .    .    . 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.      .    . 
Louisville,  Ky  

40,169 

38,307 
102,479 
204,731 

55,154 
25,874 
50,395 
161,129 

St.  Joseph,  Mo  
St.  Louis,  Mo  
St.  Paul,  Minn  
Salem  Mass 

102,979 
575,238 
163,065 
35,956 

52,324 
30,'80I 

Lowell,  Mass  

Lynn,  Mass  
McKeesport,  Pa.  ... 
Maiden,  Mass    .... 
Manchester,  N.H.    .    . 

94,969 

68,513 
34,227 
33,664 
56,987 

77,696 

55,727 
20,741 
23,031 
44,126 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  .    . 
San  Antonio,  Tex.    .    .    . 
San  Francisco,  Cal.  .    .    . 
Savannah,  Ga  
Schenectady,  N.Y.   ... 

53,53i 

342)782 
54,244 
31,682 

44,843 
37,673 
298,997 
43,^9 
19,902 

Memphis,  Tenn.    .    .    . 

102,320 

64,495 

Scranton  Pa 

__  O2A 

Milwaukee,  Wis.  .    .    . 

285,315 

204,468 

Seattle,  Wash  

80,671 

42)837 

Minneapolis,  Minn.  .    . 
Mobile   Ala 

202,718 
38,469 

164,738 

31  ,O76 

Sioux  City,  Iowa  
Somerville,  Mass.     .    .    . 

61.643 

37,806 

Montgomery,  Ala.    .    . 

30,346 

21,883 

South  Bend,  Ind  

35,999 

2I,8l9 

Nashville,  Tenn.   .    .    . 

80,865 

76,168 

Newark,  N.J  
New  Bedford,  Mass.     . 
New  Britain,  Conn.  .    . 
Newcastle,  Pa  
New  Haven,  Conn.  .   . 

246,070 
62,442 
25,998 

28,339 
108,027 

181,830 
40,733 
16,519 
i  i,  600 
81,298 

South  Omaha,  Neb.  .    .    . 
Spokane,  Wash  
Springfield  111.  .           • 

26,001 
36,848 

34,i59 
62,059 

38,253 

8,062 
19,922 
24,963 

44,*79 

Springfield,  Mass.     .    .   . 
Springfield,  Ohio  .... 

New  Orleans,  La.      .    . 

Newport   Ky         • 

287,104 
28,301 
33,587 
3,437,202 

46    624 

242,039 
24,918 
24,379 

34,871 

Superior,  Wis                .    . 

31,091 
108,374 
37,7I4 

36)673 

88)143 
36,006 
25,448 
30,2i7 

Syracuse,  N.Y  
Tacoma,  Wash  
Taunton,  Mass  
Terre  Haute,  Ind.     .    .    . 

Newton,  Mass  

New  York,  N.Y.  .    .    . 
Norfolk   Va 

Oakland   Cal 

66  060 

A.8  682 

Toledo   Ohio                  .    . 

131  822 

8i,434 

Omaha,  Neb..    '.    '.    .    . 
Oshkosh,  Wis  
Passaic    N  T 

00,9°° 
102,555 
28,284 

40,002 
140,452 
22,836 

Topeka,  Kans  

33)6o8 
73.307 

Trenton,  N.J  
Troy   N.Y.                    .    . 

Paterso'n,  N.J  

27,777 
105,171 

78)347 

,  5i 

,95 

Pawtucket,  R.I.    .    .    . 
Peoria,  111     
Philadelphia,  Pa.  ... 
Pittsburg,  Pa  

39,231 

56,100 
1,293,697 
321,616 

27,633 
41,024 
1,046,964 
238,617 

Utica,  N.Y  
Washington,  DC     .    . 

56,383 
278,718 
45,859 
38,878 

44,007 
230,392 
28,646 
34,522 

Waterbury,  Conn.     .    .    . 
Wheeling,  W.  Va.     ... 

Portland,  Me  

5°,I45 

36,425 

Wilkesbarre,  Pa  

5i,72i 

37,7I8 

Portland,  Oreg  
Providence,  R.I.    .    .    . 
Pueblo,  Colo  

90,426 

I75,597 
28,157 

46,385 
132,146 
24,558 

Williamsport,  Pa  
Wilmington,  Del  
Woonsocket,  R.I.     .   .    . 

28,757 
76,508 
28,204 

27,  J32 
20)830 

Quincy,  111  
Racine,  Wis  

36,252 
29,102 

31,494 
21,014 

Worcester,  Mass  

118,421 

84,655 

Yonkers,  N.Y  

47,93' 

32,033 

Reading,  Pa  

78,961 

58,661 

York,  Pa.    ....... 

33,7o8 

20,793 

Richmond,  Va  

85,050 

81,388 

Youngstown,  Ohio    .    .    . 

44,885 

33,220 

INDEX 


Abolitionists,  the,  287,  288. 

Abraham,   Plains  of,    122. 

Acadians,  dispersed  by  the  English, 
119.  See  Nova  Scotia. 

Adams,    Charles    Francis,    401,    402. 

Adams,  John,  becomes  Vice  Presi 
dent,  215;  elected  President,  224. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  elected  Presi 
dent  by  the  House,  268;  member 
of  the  House,  opposes  the  gag 
rule,  287. 

Adams,  Samuel,  leader  in  Massa 
chusetts,  157;  in  Continental 
Congress,  160;  note  on,  176. 

Aguinaldo,  leads  Filipinos,  is  cap 
tured,  437. 

Alabama,  admission  of,  to  the  Union, 
267;  secedes,  330. 

Alabama,  the,  in  battle  with  the  Kear- 
sarge,  385. 

Alabama  Claims,  the,  385 ;  settled, 
400-402. 

Albany  Congress,  117. 

Alien    and  Sedition    Laws,  227. 

Allegheny  Valley,  claimed  by-  France 
and  England,  114,  115. 

Allen,  Ethan,  leads  "Green  Moun 
tain  Boys,"  89;  captures  Ticon- 
deroga,  162;  note  on,  202. 

Americus  Vespucius,  makes  voyages 
to  the  New  World,  which  is  called 
by  his  name,  12. 

Anderson,  Robert,  333. 

Andre,  John,  capture  of,  193;  exe 
cuted,  194. 

Andros,  Edmund,  sent  to  govern 
New  England,  85 ;  downfall  of, 


87. 


Antietam,  battle  of,  351. 

Anti-Chinese     movement,     412, 413. 

Anti-federalist  party,   210. 

Anti-lottery    law,    the,    422. 

Anti-Masonic   party,    279,    note. 

Anti-polygamy  law,  417. 

Anti-rebate  law,  of  1902,  445. 

Anti-rent    riots,    300. 

Anti-trust  law,   the,  422. 

Arbitration  treaties,  rejected  by  the 
Senate,  446. 

Armada,  the,  defeated  by  the  Eng 
lish,  36. 

Armstrong,  John,  destroys  Kit- 
tanning,  120. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  162;  treason  of, 
193,  194;  strategy  of,  202. 

Arthur,  Chester  A .,  elected  Vice 
President,  414;  becomes  President, 
416. 

Articles  of  Confederation,  govern 
ment  under,  204-206. 

Assumption  of  state  debts,  218. 

Atlanta,  captured  by  Sherman,  375. 

Bacon,  Nathaniel,  leads  rebellion  in 

Virginia,  49,  50. 
Balboa,  discovers  the  Pacific  Ocean, 

i4,  15- 

Ball's  Bluff,  battle  of,  348. 
Baltimore,   Lord   (George   Calvert), 

51;     2d    (Cecil    Calvert),    founds 

Maryland,   53. 
Baltimore,     city    of,    founded,    54; 

repels  the  English,  254. 
Bancroft,  George,  293,   316. 
Bank,  the  United  States,  first,  220; 

second,    260;     opposed    and    de- 


475 


4/6 


INDEX 


stroyed  by  Jackson,  279-281; 
new  bill  for,  passed,  289. 

Banking  system,  the  national,  estab 
lished,  357. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  P.,  351. 

Baptists,  in  Pennsylvania,  138. 

Beauregard,  P.  G.  T.,  fires  on  Fort 
Sumter,  333;  at  Bull  Run,  340. 

Beecher,    Henry   Ward,   287,   418. 

Benjamin,  Judah  P.,  354. 

Bennington,   battle  of,   179. 

Berkeley,  William,  governor  of  Vir 
ginia,  48;  opposes  Bacon,  49,  50. 

Birney,  James  G.,  293. 

Black  Hawk  War,   281. 

Elaine,  James  G.,  407 ;  quarrels  with 
Conkling,  413;  secretary  of  state, 
414;  nominated  for  President,  418. 

Blennerhassett,  Harman,  in  Burr's 
conspiracy,  238. 

Blockade,    the,   of   1861,   338. 

Bocock,  Thomas  S.,  355. 

Boone,  Daniel,  188. 

Border  States,  the,  339. 

Boston,  city  of,  founded  by  Win- 
throp,  74. 

Boston   Massacre,    the,    157. 

Boston  Port  Bill,   158. 

Boston  Tea  Party,  the,  158. 

Braddock,  Edward,  arrives  in  Vir- 
gini?,  117;  marches  to  Fort  Du- 
quesne,  118;  is  defeated  and 
slain,  119. 

Bradford,  William,  68;  sends  Ca- 
nonicus  snake  skin  filled  with  pow 
der,  72. 

Bragg,  Braxton,  in  Kentucky,  358; 
at  Stone  River,  359;  at  Chicka- 
mauga,  368;  at  Dalton,  369. 

Brandywine,   battle  of,    183. 

Breckenridge,  John  C.,  elected  Vice 
President,  319;  nominated  for 
President,  327. 

Brews ter,  William,  68. 

Bristow,  Benjamin,  exposes  Whisky 
Ring,  404. 


Brock,  Isaac,  248,  249. 

Brooklyn  Heights,  battle  of,   171. 

Brooks,    Preston,    322. 

Brown,  John,  raid  of,  on  Harper's 
Ferry,  323,  324. 

Bryan,  William  J.,  nominated  for 
President,  429,  437. 

Bryant,    William    Cullen,    273,    315. 

Buchanan,  James,  310;  elected 
President,  319,  320;  attitude  of, 
toward  secession,  330. 

Buell,  Don  Carlos,  reaches  Shiloh, 
346;  in  Kentucky,  358. 

Buena  Vista,  battle  of,  296. 

Bull  Run,  battle  of,  340;  second 
battle  of,  351. 

Bunker  Hill,  battle  of,   164. 

Bunker  Hill   Monument,    269. 

Burgesses,  House  of,  in  Virginia,  46. 

Burgoyne,  John,  joins  Gage's  army, 
164;  commands  army  of  the 
North,  177;  surrenders,  180. 

Burke,  Edmund,  on  the  tea  tax,  176. 

Burnside,  Ambrose  E.,  captures 
Roanoke  Island,  343;  in  com 
mand  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
3152;  defeated  at  Fredericksburg, 
361. 

Burr,  Aaron,  becomes  Vice  Presi 
dent,  228,  229;  kills  Hamilton 
in  a  duel,  236;  conspiracy  of,  237. 

Burr,   Theodosia,   243. 

Butler,  Benjamin  F.,  in  coast  expe 
dition,  343. 

Cabinet,  the,  creating  of,  217; 
growth  of,  218,  note  i. 

Cabot,  John,  discovers  North 
America,  n. 

Calhoun,  John  C.,  247;  becomes 
Vice  President,  267,  275;  position 
on  state  rights,  278;  becomes 

-  secretary  of  state,  290;  speech 
on  Fugitive  Slave^  law,  303,  304. 

California,  extent  of,  desired  terri 
tory,  294,  295 ;  ceded  to  the 


INDEX 


477 


United  States,  297;  discovery  of 
gold  in,  298;  western  portion  be 
comes  a  free  state  by  the  same 
name,  302. 

Camden,  battle  of,  195. 

Canada,  explored  and  settled  by 
French,  108,  109;  ceded  to  Eng 
land,  123;  expedition  to,  165; 
war  in,  252  ff. 

Canals,   271. 

Canby,  Edward  R.  S.,  405. 

Canonicus,   72. 

Capital,  the,  location  of,  219;  note 
on,  231;  captured  by  the  British, 

254- 

Caroline,    Fort,    colony    of,    37. 

Carpetbaggers,  the,  394. 

Carteret,  George,  founds  New  Jer 
sey,  99. 

Cartier,    Jacques,    22. 

Carver,  John,  first  governor  of  Plym 
outh,  68,  69. 

Cass,  Lewis,  candidate  for  Presi 
dent,  301. 

Cathay,   empire   of   (China),    2. 

Catholics,  found  Maryland,  51  ff. ; 
laws  passed  against,  54;  occupy 
Canada,  n6;in  Pennsylvania,  138. 

Cedar  Creek,  battle  of,  374. 

Cedar   Mountain,    battle   of,   351. 

Centennial,    the,  406. 

Cerro   Gordo,   battle  of,   296. 

Cervera,  Admiral,  at   Santiago,   434. 

Champlain,    explorations   of,    108. 

Charles  II,  grants  charter  to  Con 
necticut,  78;  to  Rhode  Island, 
79;  for  New  York,  97. 

Charleston,  South  Carolina,  founded, 
57;  one  of  the  five  largest  cities, 
129;  home  of  planters,  140;  at 
tacked  by  the  British,  170;  surren 
ders  to  the  British,  195 ;  burning 
of,  382. 

Charter  Oak,  the,  87. 

Charters,  royal,  to  London  and 
Plymouth  Company,  41  ;  to  Lord 


Baltimore,  52;  for  the  Carolinas, 
55 ;  to  Oglethorpe,  61. 

Chase,  Salmon  P.,  311;  in  Lincoln's 
cabinet,  333;  presides  at  John 
son's  trial,  396. 

Chattanooga,    battles    around,    369. 

Cherry   Valley,    189. 

Chesapeake,  the,  fired  on  by  the 
Leopard,  239. 

Chickamauga,  battle  of,  368. 

Chinese  Exclusion  laws,  413. 

Chili,  pays  indemnity,  423. 

Chippewa,  battle  of,  253. 

Chronology,   American,   xxi  ff. 

Chrysler's  Field,  battle  of,  252. 

Cibola,  seven  cities  of,   17. 

Cities,  table  of  the,  473  (Appendix 
IV). 

Civil  Rights  bill,  the,  393. 

Civil  Service  Reform,  417. 

,Civil  War,  the,  337-389;    results  of, 

,,00 
3»». 

Claiborne,    William,    wars      against 

Maryland,  53. 
Clark,  George  Rogers,  189. 
Clay,  Henry,  leader  in  Congress, 
247;  Secretary  of  State,  268;  de 
feated  for  President  by  Jackson, 
280;  on  the  bank  question,  279, 
280;  founds  Whig  party,  288; 
frames  new  bank  bill,  289 ;  nomi 
nated  for  President  by  Whigs,  291 ; 
defeated,  292,  293;  introduces 
Omnibus  bill,  303 ;  death  of,  309 ; 
anecdotes  of,  316. 

Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty,  317;  super 
seded,  440. 

Cleveland,  Grover,  elected  Presi 
dent,  418;  issues  tariff  message, 
420;  reelected,  424;  second  term 
of,  426  ff. 

Clinton,  Henry,  joins  Gage's  army, 
164;   sails  for  the  South,  169,  195; 
succeeds    Howe,    at     Monmouth, 
186. 
Cold  Harbor,  battle  of,  372. 


478 


INDEX 


Colfax,  Schuyler,  399. 

Coligny,  sends  Ribaut  to  South 
Carolina,  36. 

Colombia,  refuses  to  ratify  canal 
treaty,  441. 

Colorado,  the  Centennial  State,  412. 

Columbia  University  (King's  Col 
lege),  142. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  birth  and 
early  life  of,  applies  to  Portugal 
for  aid,  5 ;  goes  to  Spain,  begins 
great  voyage,  6;  discovers  New 
World,  7;  later  career  of,  9,  10; 
note  on,  23. 

Commanders  in  chief,  in  the  Civil 
War,  370. 

Compromise  of  1850,  introduced  by 
Clay,  303 ;  great  debates  on,  303, 
304;  passing  of,  305. 

Concord,  fight  at,  161. 

Confederacy,  New  England,  82. 

Confederate  States  of  America,  the, 
organization  of,  330,  331;  notice 

of>   354,   355- 

Confiscation  Acts,  353. 

Conkling,  Roscoe,  quarrels  with 
Elaine,  414;  418. 

Connecticut,  colony  of,  first  settled, 
77;  produces  first  written  con 
stitution,  77;  charter  for,  78; 
saves  charter,  87. 

Connecticut,  state  of,  attitude  of,  on 
slavery,  287. 

Constitution,  the,  framing  of,  at 
Philadelphia,  206-211;  three-de 
partment  plan,  207;  compromises 
of,  207-209 ;  a  view  of,  209 ;  be 
fore  the  people,  210;  text  of,  453. 

Constitution,  the,  captures  the  Guer- 
riere,  250;  destroys  the  Java,  251. 

Continental  Congress,  First,  meets 
at  Philadelphia,  159;  acts  of,  160; 
Second,  meets  at  Philadelphia,  162; 
doings  of,  163;  issues  Declaration 
of  Independence,  166-168. 

Con  way  Cabal,  the,  185. 


Cooper,  James  Fenimore,   273,  315. 

Cornwallis,  Charles,  pursues  Wash 
ington  across  New  Jersey,  172; 
sails  to  the  South,  195;  at  Guil- 
ford,  197;  surrenders  at  York- 
town,  197. 

Coronado,    explorations    of,    19. 

Cortereal,  explores  Labrador,  22. 

Cortez,  Hernando,  conquers  Mex 
ico,  1 6. 

Courts,  the  Federal,  235.  See  Gov 
ernment,  Colonial. 

Cowpens,  battle  of,  196. 

Crawford,  William  H.,  candidate 
for  the  presidency,  268. 

Credit  Mobilier,  the,  404. 

Crown  Point,  117;    captured,  120. 

Cuba,  discovered  by  Columbus,  9; 
desired  by  the  South,  309,  310; 
revolt  in,  against  Spain,  431 ; 
war  in,  433. 

Curtis,    George   William,    418. 

Custer,  George  A.,  in  Indian  battle, 
4°5  • 

Dale,  Sir  Thomas,  governor  of  Vir 
ginia,  44,  45. 

Dare,  Virginia,  39. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  in  Pierce's  Cabinet, 
311;  elected  President  of  the 
Confederate  States,  330,  331; 
sends  Mason  and  Slidell  to  Lon 
don,  342 ;  chooses  Cabinet,  354. 

Dearborn,  Henry,  commander  in 
chief,  248. 

Debs,  Eugene  V.,  nominated  for 
President,  445. 

Debt,   public,   after  the  Civil  War, 

405- 

Declaration  of  Independence,  passed 
by  Congress,  166-168. 

Declaratory  Act,  156. 

Decrees,  French  (Berlin,  Milan,  etc.), 
240. 

De  Grasse,  Count,  aids  at  York- 
town,  197. 


INDEX 


479 


De  Kalb,  aids  Americans,   188. 
Delaware,     colony     of,     settled     by 

Swedes,    100,    101 ;    conquered  by 

the  Dutch,   101 ;    sold  to  William 

Penn,     101 ;     first    to    adopt    the 

Constitution,  210. 

Delaware,  Lord,  reaches  Virginia,  44. 
De  Lesseps,   Ferdinand,  440. 
Democratic     party,     rise     of,     220; 

success  of,  228,  229,  and  passim. 
Dependent  Pension  law,  the,  421. 
De  Soto,  Ferdinand,  explores  Florida, 

19;      discovers     the     Mississippi, 

20,  21. 
D'Estaing,    Count,    arrives    with    a 

fleet,   194. 
Dewey,     George,     wins     battle     of 

Manila,  433. 
Diaz,    Bartholomew,    great    voyage 

of,   4. 
Dickinson,     John,     in     Continental 

Congress,    160. 
Dingley,   Nelson,   frames    tariff   bill, 

431- 

Dinwiddie,  Governor,  sends  Wash 
ington  to  St.  Pierre,  114;  re 
ceives  General  Braddock,  117. 

Donelson,  Fort,  captured  by  Grant, 

345 »  346. 

Dorchester  Heights,  occupied  by 
Washington,  166. 

Dorr  Rebellion,  300. 

Douglas,  Stephen  A.,  introduces 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  311;  on 
Kansas  question,  322;  debates 
with  Lincoln,  324-326;  nomi 
nated  for  President,  327. 

Draft   Riots,   356. 

Drake,  Francis,  sails  around  the 
world,  21. 

Drake,    Joseph   Rodman,   315. 

Dred  Scott  Decision,  320. 

Dupont,  S.  F.,  343. 

Duquesne,  Fort,  built  by  French, 
115;  captured  by  English,  be 
comes  Pittsburg,  121. 


Dutch,  in  Maryland,  54;  settle  New 
Netherland,  93;  in  Pennsylvania, 
105;  in  New  York,  129,  136. 

Early,     Jubal     A.,     in    Shenandoah 

Valley,  373,  374. 
Education  in  the  Colonies,  141-143; 

in  later  times,  273,  449. 
El  Caney,  battle  of,  433. 
Electoral  Commission,  the,  409. 
Electric  light,  invention  of,  424. 
Eliot,  John,  apostle  to  the  Indians, 

83. 

Emancipation  Proclamation,  352, 
353;  its  effect,  353,  354. 

Embargo,    the,   of   Jefferson,   241. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  273;  atti 
tude  of,  on  slavery,  287. 

Endicott,  John,  settles  at  Salem,  73. 

England,  disputes  claims  of  Spain, 
defeats  Armada,  36;  wins  Canada 
from  France,  123;  makes  treaty 
of  peace,  199;  our  relations  with, 
222,  239;  at  war  with  France, 
239;  war  declared  against,  248; 
settles  Alabama  claims,  401. 

Episcopalians,  in  South  Carolina,  59; 
in  Georgia,  64;  in  Pennsylvania, 

138- 

"  Era  of  good  feeling,"  261. 
Ericson,  Leif,  discovers  America,  i. 
Ericsson,  John,  builds  the  Monitor, 

344- 

Evarts,  William  M.,  410. 
Explorations,   16  ff. 

Fairbanks,  Charles  W.,  elected  Vice 

President,  444. 
Fair  Oaks,  battle  of,  349. 
Faneuil  Hall,  158. 
Farmers'   organizations,   413. 
Farragut,   David   Glasgow,   captures 

New  Orleans,  347,  348;   at  Mobile 

Bay,  375-377.  388. 
Federalist    party,    210;     supremacy 

of,  212-229;    fall  of,  228. 


480 


INDEX 


Fifteenth  Amendment,  the,  394,  400. 
Fillmore,  Millard,  elected  Vice  Presi 
dent,     302 ;      becomes     President, 

304-305- 

Fitch,    John,    238. 

Five  Forks,  battle  of,  381. 

Florida,  discovered  by  Ponce  de 
Leon,  14;  ceded  by  Spain,  262; 
secedes,  330. 

Fox,  George,  founds  Quaker  sect, 
102,  106. 

France,  disputes  claim  of  Spain  to 
North  America,  36;  cedes  Canada 
to  England,  Louisiana  to  Spain, 
etc.,  123;  aids  America  in  Revo 
lution,  186;  makes  treaty,  187; 
our  relations  with,  221,  225; 
threatened  war  with,  227;  at 
war  with  England,  239—244. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  calls  Albany 
Congress,  117;  in  France,  186, 
187;  in  Constitutional  Conven 
tion,  206;  note  on,  203. 

Frazier's   Farm,   battle  of,   349. 

Free  Soil  party,   292,   293,  303. 

Fremont,  John  C.,  candidate  for 
President,  319,  320. 

French     explorers,   108-110. 

Frobisher,  Martin,  21. 

Frontenac,  Fort,  121,  122. 

Fugitive  Slave  law,  the,  proposed 
by  Clay,  303,  becomes  law,  305 ; 
disturbance  caused  by  operation 
of,  306,  307. 

Fulton,  Robert,  invents  steamboat, 
238. 

Gadsden,  Christopher,  155. 
Gadsden    Purchase,    297,    note. 
Gage,    Thomas,    commands    British 

army,    161;    succeeded  by  Howe, 

1 66. 

Gag  Rule,  the,  287. 
Gaines  Mills,  battle  of,  349. 
Gallatin,    Albert,    Secretary  of    the 

Treasury,   245. 


Garfield,  James  A.,  elected  Presi 
dent,  413;  death  of,  415. 

Garrison,    William    Lloyd,    286-288. 

Gaspee,  the,  burning  of,  157. 

Gates,  Horatio,  succeeds  Schuyler, 
179;  defeated  at  Camden,  195. 

Genet,  "Citizen,"  222. 

Geneva  Award,    the,   401. 

Genoa,  route  to  the  East  from,  2; 
birthplace  of  Columbus,  5. 

George  II,  king  of  England,  112. 

George  III,  king,  retains  tax  on  tea, 
158;  issues  proclamation  against 
the  colonists,  hires  Hessian  sol 
diers,  1 66;  offers  olive  branch, 
171. 

Georgia,  colony  of,  first  settled, 
60  ff. ;  important  facts  about,  63; 
government  and  growth  of,  63,  64; 
becomes  royal  colony,  63. 

Georgia,  state  of,  secedes,  330. 

Germans,  in  Virginia,  51;  in  Mary 
land,  54;  in  Pennsylvania,  105,  129, 

!37- 

German  town,  battle  of,  183. 
Germany,  our  relations  with,  during 

the  war,  386. 

Gerry,  Elb ridge,  sent  to  France,  226. 
Gettysburg,  battle  of,  363,  364. 
Ghent,    treaty   of,    256. 
Gilbert,     Humphrey,     attempts     to 

colonize  Newfoundland,  38. 
Gold,    discovery    of,    in    California, 

298;    brings  immigrants,  314. 
Gordillo,  explorer,  22. 
Gould,  Hannah  F.,  315. 
Government,    of    the   colonies,    146- 

150;    of  the   United  States  under 

Articles  of  Confederation,    204  ff. ; 

under  the    Constitution,    212    ff. 
Grangers,    the,   413. 
Grant,   Ulysses   S.,   captures   Donel- 

son,  346;    at  Shiloh,  346;    invests 

Vicksburg,  359;    captures  it,  360; 

made    commander    in    chief,   370; 

in   the  Wilderness,  370  ff . ;  before 


INDEX 


481 


Petersburg,  373,  380;  receives 
surrender  of  Lee,  381,  387; 
elected  President,  399;  reflected, 
404;  third  term  proposed  for, 
414. 

Greeley,  Horace,  candidate  for 
President,  403. 

Greenbacks,  issue  of,  387. 

Green  Mountain  Boys,  89. 

Greene,  Nathaniel,  162;  in  com 
mand  under  Washington,  165; 
at  Guilford,  196. 

Guerriere,  the,  captured  by  the 
Constitution^  250. 

Habeas  Corpus,  writ  of,  suspended, 

355- 

Haiti,   discovered  by  Columbus,   9. 

Hale,  Nathan,  176. 

Halleck,  Fitz-Greene,  315. 

Halleck,  William  H.,  345;  com 
mander  in  chief,  358,  370. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  in  Constitu 
tional  Convention,  206;  in  first 
Cabinet,  217;  makes  treasury 
report,  218;  contest  with  Jefferson, 
219;  killed  by  Burr,  236;  esti 
mate  of,  237. 

Hancock,  John,  160,  162. 

Hancock,  Winfield  Scott,  nominated 
for  President,  414. 

Harper's  Ferry,  captured  by  John 
Brown,  324;  seized  by  Virginia, 
335;  captured  by  Stonewall 
Jackson,  352. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  elected  Presi 
dent,  420,  421. 

Harrison,  William  Henry,  246,  247; 
recovers  Michigan,  252;  is  elected 
President,  288;  dies,  289. 

Hartford  Convention,  the,  257. 

Harvard  College,  founded,  141. 

Hatteras    Inlet,  forts    of,   captured, 

343- 

Hawaiian  Islands,  the,  annexation 
of,  427. 

21 


Hawthorne,   Nathaniel,   315. 
Hayes,  Rutherford  B.,  352;  elected 

President,  408. 
Hay-Herran  Treaty,  440. 
Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty,  440. 
Hayne,    Robert    Y.,    debates    with 

Webster,  278. 

Hendricks,  Thomas  A.,  419. 
Henry,    Patrick,    awakens    colonists 

against    the    king,    154,    155;     in 

Continental  Congress,  160. 
Herkimer,    Nicholas,    at    Oriskany, 

178. 
Hessian  soldiers,   166;    captured  at 

Trenton,  173. 
Hobart,     Garret    A.,    elected    Vice 

President,  430. 
Homestead  Act,  the,  357. 
Hood,  John  B.,  succeeds  Johnston, 

375- 

Hooker,  Joseph,  at  Chancellorsville, 
362 ;  resigns,  363 ;  at  Lookout 
Mountain,  369. 

Hooker,  Thomas,  founds  Connecti 
cut,  77. 

Howe,  William,  reaches  Boston,  164; 
succeeds  Gage,  sails  to  Halifax, 
1 66;  returns  to  New  York,  de 
feats  Americans,  171;  sails  for 
the  Chesapeake,  at  Brandywine, 
183;  enters  Philadelphia,  183; 
is  succeeded  by  Clinton,  186. 

Hudson,  Henry,  discovers  Hudson 
River,  92,  93. 

Hudson  Valley,  struggle  for,  177  ff. 

Huguenots,  in  Virginia,  51;  in 
Maryland,  54;  in  South  Caro 
lina,  57. 

Hull,  Isaac,  captures  the  Guerriere, 
250. 

Hull,  William,  248. 

Hutchinson,  Anne,   75,  76,   79. 

Illinois,  admission  of,  267;    home  of 

Lincoln  and  Douglas,  325. 
Immigration,  314;  increase  of,  449. 


48.2 


INDEX 


Impressment  of  seamen,  223,  239, 
244. 

Independence,  Declaration  of,  166, 
167;  reception  of,  by  the  people, 
1 68. 

Independent   Treasury,    the,    284. 

Indiana,  rapid  settlement  of,  267; 
admission  of,  to  the  Union,  267. 

Indians,  the,  discovered  by  Euro 
peans,  24;  characteristics  of,  25; 
home  life  and  habits  of,  26;  re 
ligion  of,  27;  as  hunters  and  war 
riors,  29;  civilization  of,  30; 
relations  of,  to  the  colonists,  31; 
nations  and  tribes  of,  32-34. 

Indian  Wars,  in  Virginia,  47;  in 
North  Carolina,  56;  in  South 
Carolina,  58;  in  Ohio,  232;  in  the 
South,  255;  Black  Hawk,  281; 
Second  Seminole,  282;  Little  Big 
Horn  River,  405. 

Indies,  the  East,  westward  route  to, 
sought  by  Italy  and  Portugal,  4; 
by  Columbus,  6;  by  Magellan,  16. 

Indigo,  grown  in  South  Carolina,  59. 

Interstate  Commerce  act,  420. 

Inventions,  213,  314,  424,  451. 

Irish,    in    South    Carolina,    60. 

Irving,  Washington,  273,  315. 

Isabella,  Queen  of  Spain,  aids  Co 
lumbus,  6. 

Island  No.    10,   captured,   347. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  wins  battle  of 
New  Orleans,  255,  256;  sent 
against  the  Seminoles,  261 ;  can 
didate  for  President,  268;  elected 
President,  notice  of,  275;  crushes 
nullification,  278;  reflected  Presi 
dent,  280;  character  of,  282; 
boyhood  of,  285. 

Jackson,  T.  J.,  "Stonewall,"  cap 
tures  Harper's  Ferry,  352;  killed 
at  Chancellorsville,  362;  note  on, 
366;  388. 

James  I,  king    of   England,  grants 


charter  to  London  and  Plymouth 
Company,  41. 

Jamestown  founded,  41 ;  conditions  of 
life  in,  42  ff. ;  burned  by  Bacon,  49. 

Jasper,  William,  brave  deed  of,  170. 

Jay,  John,  signs  treaty  of  Paris,  200 ; 
first  Chief  Justice,  218;  frames 
treaty  with  England,  223. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  159;  in  Con 
tinental  Congress,  162;  writes 
Declaration  of  Independence,  167; 
enters  first  Cabinet,  217;  contest 
with  Hamilton,  219;  elected  Vice 
President,  224;  writes  Kentucky 
Resolutions,  228;  elected  Presi 
dent  by  the  House,  229;  adminis 
trations  of,  233-242 ;  second  elec 
tion  of,  237;  retirement,  popu 
larity  of,  241. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  remains  true  to 
the  Union,  341 ;  elected  Vice 
President,  377;  becomes  Presi 
dent,  391;  plans  reconstruction, 
392;  impeachment  and  trial  of, 

395  ff- 

Johnson,  Richard  M.,  283. 

Johnston,  Albert  Sydney,  345; 
killed  at  Shiloh,  346;  388. 

Johnston,  Joseph  E.,  at  Bull  Run, 
340;  wounded  at  Fair  Oaks,  349; 
succeeds  Bragg,  370,  372;  op 
poses  Sherman,  374. 

Joint   High    Commission,    the,   401. 

Joliet,  explorations  of,   109. 

Jones,  John  Paul,  great  victory  of, 
191. 

Kansas,  border  warfare  in,  321,  322. 

Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  the,  310; 
introduced  by  Douglas,  311;  re 
ception  of,  311. 

Kearsarge,the,  sinks  the  Alabama,  385. 

Kenesaw  Mountain,  battle  of,  375. 

Kentucky,  settled  by  Boone,  189; 
enters  the  Union,  212;  refuses  to 
secede,  war  in,  358. 


INDEX 


483 


Kentucky  and  Virginia  Resolutions, 

228. 

Key,  Francis  Scott,  254. 
Kieft,     William,    Dutch    Governor, 

94- 

King  Philip's  War,  83-85. 
King's  Mountain,  battle  of,  195,  196. 
Kittanning,  destroyed  by  Armstrong, 

120. 
Knox,  Henry,  165;    in  first  Cabinet, 

217. 
Kosciusko,    aids   Americans,    188. 

Lafayette,  Marquis  de,  arrives  in 
America,  187;  watches  Corn- 
wallis  in  Virginia,  197;  revisits 
the  United  States,  268. 

Land   cessions  by  the  States,  205. 

La  Salle,  explores  Mississippi  Valley, 
109,  no. 

Lawrence,  James,  killed  on  the 
Chesapeake,  251. 

Lecompton  Constitution,  the,  321, 
322. 

Lee,  Charles,  refuses  to  obey  Wash 
ington,  172,  186. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  moves  for  in 
dependence,  167. 

Lee,  Robert  E.,  takes  command  of 
Confederate  army,  349;  at  Antie- 
tam,  351;  marches  into  Penn 
sylvania,  362 ;  at  Gettysburg, 
3^3>  364;  surrenders  at  Appo- 
mattox,  382 ;  388. 

Legal  Tender  Act,  the,  358. 

Leisler,  Jacob,  executed  in  New 
York,  98. 

Leon,  Ponce  de,  discovers  Florida,  14. 

Leopard,  the,  fires  on  the  Chesa 
peake,  239. 

Lewis    and     Clark,    expedition    of, 

235- 

Lexington,   battle  of,    161. 
Liberal  Republican  Movement,  the, 

402-404. 
Liberator,  the,  286.     ^^ 


Lincoln,  Abraham,  debates  with 
Douglas,  325,  326;  nominated 
for  President,  329;  elected,  329; 
boyhood  of,  336;  calls  extra 
session  of  Congress,  341 ;  issues 
Emancipation  Proclamation,  353; 
banishes  Vallandigham,  357;  note 
on  Lincoln  and  McClellan,  366; 
reflected  President,  377,  378; 
death  of,  383;  character  of,  383; 
reconstruction  plans  of,  390;  last 
speech  of,  391. 

Lincoln,  Benjamin,  194;  surren 
ders  Charleston,  195. 

Literature,  273,  315,  448. 

Little  Belt,  the,  fired  on  by  the  Presi 
dent,  247. 

Livingston,  Robert  R.,  purchases 
Louisiana,  234. 

Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  273. 

Long  Island,  battle  of,  171. 

Lookout   Mountain,   battle  of,   369. 

Lopez,    Narcisco,   310,    note. 

Loudon,  Lord,  English  commander, 
120,  121. 

Louisburg,  built  by  French,  cap 
tured  by  English,  112,  121. 

Louisiana,  discovered  by  La  Salle, 
109;  •  ceded  to  Spain,  123;  to 
France,  sold  to  Jefferson,  234. 

Louisiana,  state  of,  admitted  to 
the  Union,  267;  seceded,  330. 

Louisiana  Purchase,  exhibition,  438. 

Lundy,  Benjamin,  286. 

Lundy's  Lane,  battle  of,  253. 

Lutherans,   in   Pennsylvania,    138. 

Lyon,  Nathaniel,  at  Wilson's  Creek, 
34i- 

Madison,  James,  in  Constitutional 
Convention,  206;  writes  Virginia 
Resolutions,  228;  Secretary  of 
State,  233;  elected  President, 
245 ;  retirement  of,  261. 

Magellan,  Ferdinand,  first  to  sail 
around  the  world,  15,  16. 


484 


INDEX 


Mails,  in  the  colonies,   145. 

Maine,  the,  destroyed  in  Cuban 
waters,  432. 

Maine,  first  settled,  80;  overrun  by 
British,  253;  admitted  as  a  state, 
267. 

Malvern  Hill,  battle  of,  349. 

Manhattan  Island,  purchased  by 
Minuit,  93;  occupied  by  Wash 
ington,  171. 

Manila,  battle  of,  433. 

Manufacturing,  in  the  colonies,  135, 
151;  before  the  war  of  1812,  241; 
after  that  war,  260. 

Marco  Polo,   3. 

Marietta,  Ohio,  founded  by  Putnam, 
232. 

Marquette,    explorations   of,    109. 

Marshall,  John,  sent  to  France,  226; 
appointed  Chief  Justice,  236;  pre 
sides  at  Burr's  trial,  237. 

Maryland,  colony  of,  founded  by 
Baltimore,  51-54;  religious  tolera 
tion  in,  53;  government  of,  54, 
146,  150;  slavery  in,  130;  social 
life  in,  138. 

Mason,  James,  342. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,   104. 

Massachusetts,  colony  of,  -founded, 
73j  government  of,  74,  146;  loses 
her  charter,  86;  receives  another, 
87;  growth  of,  88;  rank  in  popu 
lation,  129;  provides  for  educa 
tion,  141;  abolishes  slavery,  214. 

Massasoit,   72. 

Maximilian,  in  Mexico,  386. 

Mayflower,  the,  68,  69. 

McClellan,  George  B.,  in  West 
Virginia,  340;  commands  the 
army  of  the  Potomac,  348,  350; 
at  Antietam,  351;  dismissed,  352; 
note  on  Lincoln  and  McClellan, 
366;  nominated  for  President,  377. 

McDowell,  Irwin,  340. 

McKinley,  William,  frames  tariff 
bill,  421,  elected  President,  430; 


reflected,   437;    popularity,   death 

of,  439. 
Meade,  George  G.,  in  command  at 

Gettysburg,   363. 
Mechanicsville,  battle  of,  349. 
Medicine,  practice  of,  in  the  colonies, 

143- 
Menendez,      founds    St.    Augustine, 

37\ 

Merrimac,  the,  fights  with  the  Moni 
tor,  344. 

Methodists,  in  Georgia,  63 ;  in  Penn 
sylvania,  138. 

Mexican  War,  294-298. 

Mexico,  conquered  by  Cortez,  16; 
emancipates  her  slaves,  290;  cedes 
California  to  the  United  States, 
297;  conquered  by  the  French, 
386. 

Michigan,  surrendered  by  Hull, 
248;  is  recovered,  253. 

Middle  Colonies,  the  first  settle 
ments  in,  91-107;  conditions  of 
slavery  in,  129. 

Miles,  Nelson  A.,  in  Porto  Rico,  434. 

Mimms,   Fort,   massacre  of,  255. 

Minuit,  Peter,  founds  New  Amster 
dam,  93,  94;  leads  the  Swedes 
to  Delaware,  101. 

Missionary  Ridge,  'battle  of,  369. 

Mississippi,  state  of,  admission  to  the 
Union,  267;  secedes,  330. 

Mississippi,  the,  discovered  by  De 
Soto,  20,  21 ;  made  the  western 
boundary  of  the  United  States, 
200;  war  operations  along,  345. 

Missouri,  admitted  to  the  Union, 
263;  war  in,  341. 

Missouri  Compromise,  the,  262,  263. 

Mobile  Bay,  battle  of,  376. 

Molasses  Act,  the,  151,  154. 

Monitor,  the,  fights  with  the  Merri- 
mac,  344. 

Monmouth,  battle  of,   186. 

Monroe,  James,  sent  to  France,  234; 
Secretary  of  State,  245;  elected 


INDEX 


485 


President,  261 ;  issues  Monroe 
Doctrine,  263. 

Monroe  Doctrine,  the,  263,  264; 
purpose  of,  264;  386,  429. 

Montcalm,  Marquis  de,  French  com 
mander,  121;  loses  Quebec,  122 
and  note. 

Montgomery,  Richard,   165. 

Montreal,  surrendered  to  the  English, 
123. 

Moore's   Creek,   battle   of,    169. 

Moravians,  in  Georgia,  63;  in  Penn 
sylvania,  138. 

Morgan,  Daniel,  leads  Virginians, 
165;  defeats  Tarleton  at  Cow- 
pens,  196. 

Morgan,     J.    H.,   cavalry   raid    by, 

357- 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.,  299,  314. 
Motley,  John  Lothrop,  316. 
Moultrie,  Fort,   170. 
Moultrie,  William,  170. 
Mound  Builders,  the,  34. 
Mower  and  reaper,  the,  314. 
Muhlenberg,  Frederick,  first  Speaker 

of  the  House,  216. 
Murfreesboro,  battle  of,  359. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  sells  Louisiana 
to  the  United  States,  234;  issues 
decrees  at  Berlin  and  Milan,  240. 

Narvaez,  Panfilo  de,  explores  Florida, 

17- 

Nashville,  battle  of,  380. 

Nationality    of    the    colonists,    129. 

Navigation  Acts,  the,  150-152;  to 
be  enforced,  154. 

New  Amsterdam,  settled  by  Dutch, 
91-94;  becomes  New  York,  97. 

New  England,  settled  by  the  English, 
67-81 ;  affairs  of,  82  ff. ;  develop 
ment  of,  88;  social  classes  and 
slavery  in,  129,  131;  occupations 
in,  132;  village  life  in,  133;  edu 
cation  in,  141. 

New    Hampshire,    colony    of,    first 


settled,  80;  disputes  with  New 
York,  89;  abolishes  slavery,  214. 

New  Hampshire  Grants,  89. 

New  Haven,  founded,  78;  joined  to 
Connecticut,  78. 

New  Jersey,  colony  of,  first  settled, 
98,  99;  government  of,  100; 
rural  life  in,  100,  136. 

New  Netherland,  settled  by  the 
Dutch,  93;  four  governors  of, 
93-965  government  of,  95;  con 
quest  of,  by  the  English,  96. 

New  Orleans,  founded,  112;  battle 
of,  256;  captured  by  Farragut, 
347,  348. 

Newspapers  in  the  colonies,  146. 

New  York,  city  of,  first  called  New 
Amsterdam,  94;  population  of, 
129;  occupied  by  Washington, 
171;  occupied  by  British,  172; 
Washington  inaugurated  at,  215. 

New  York,  colony  of,  founded  by 
the  Dutch  as  New  Netherland, 
93  ff . ;  conquered  by  the  English, 
97 1  government  of,  97;  growth 
of,  98;  social  classes  in,  129,  131; 
home  life  in,  135;  industries  of, 
136;  education  in,  142;  adopts 
the  Constitution,  211. 

New  York,  state  of,  overrun  by  Brit 
ish,  253;  aided  by  Erie  Canal,  271. 

Nicaragua   Canal,   proposed,   440. 

Nicolls,  Richard,  conquers  New 
Amsterdam,  becomes  governor,  97. 

Norfolk,  Virginia,  burned,   169. 

North  Carolina,  colony  of,  first 
settled,  54  ff. ;  government  and 
growth  of,  55,  '56;  separated  from 
South  Carolina,  59;  first  to  move 
for  independence,  167;  adopts 
the  Constitution,  211. 

North  Carolina,  state  of,  birthplace 
of  Jackson,  275;  secedes,  335; 
war  in,  343. 

Northmen,  voyages  of  the,  I. 

North,  the  sentiment  of,  on  slavery, 


486 


INDEX 


286,     302;     compared     with    the 

South,  337;    politics  in,  during  the 

Civil    War,    355-358;      industrial 

awakening  in,  411. 
Nova  Scotia,  ceded  to  the  English, 

112;    boundary  of,   disputed,  113. 

See  Acadians. 
Nullification     in     South     Carolina, 

277-279. 

Oglethorpe,  James,  founds  Georgia, 
60,  61 ;  expedition  of,  against  St. 
Augustine,  63. 

Ohio,  first  settled,  232;  admission 
of,  233. 

Ohio  Company,   the,   113. 

Ohio  Valley,  the,  claimed  by  France 
and  England,  113. 

Oklahoma,  opened  to  settlers,  423. 

Omnibus  Bill,  see  Compromise  of 
1850. 

Orders  in  Council,  240. 

Ordinance   of   1787,    205. 

Oregon,  location,  extent  of,  293, 
294;  boundary  of,  settled,  294. 

Oriskany,    battle   of,    178. 

Osceola,  captured,  282. 

Ostend  Manifesto,  the,  309,  310. 

Otis,  James,  opposes  Writs  of  Assist 
ance,  154. 

Pacific  Railroad,  completion  of,  400. 

Pakenham,  Edward,  advances  on 
New  Orleans,  255 ;  is  killed,  256. 

Panama  Canal,  440-442;  value  of, 
when  completed,  442. 

Panama,  revolt  in,  441,  442;  treaty 
with,  442. 

Panic,  of  1837,  284;  of  1873,  406; 
of  1893,  427. 

Parker,  Alton  B.,  nominated  for 
President,  444,  445. 

Parkman,  Francis,  316. 

Parties,  political,  rise  of,  220;  divi 
sion  of,  269.  See  Federalist,  Re 
publican,  Democratic,  etc. 


Peace  Congress,  331. 

Pea  Ridge,  battle  of,  347. 

Pemberton,  John  C.,  surrenders 
Vicksburg,  360. 

Penn,  William,  purchases  part  of 
New  Jersey,  99;  purchases  Dela 
ware,  101,  103;  receives  charter 
for  Pennsylvania,  102;  founds 
Philadelphia,  makes  treaty  with 
the  Indians,  104;  note  on,  106. 

Pennsylvania,  colony  of,  settled  by 
Quakers,  102  ff. ;  government  and 
growth  of,  105 ;  rank  in  population, 
129;  social  life  in,  137;  education 
in,  142;  adopts  the  Constitution, 
210;  abolishes  slavery,  214. 

Pennsylvania,   University  of,    142. 

Pequot  War,  the,  79. 

Perry,  Matthew  C.,  expedition  to 
Japan,  310. 

Perry,  Oliver  Hazard,  victory  on 
Lake  Erie,  252. 

Perryville,  battle  of,  358. 

Petersburg,  siege  of,  373. 

Petroleum,  discovery  of,  412. 

Philadelphia,  137;  Howe  enters, 
183;  Declaration  of  Independ 
ence  at,  166;  Convention  at,  206. 

Philippine  Islands,  discovered  by 
Magellan,  16;  acquired  by  the 
United  States,  434;  extent,  popu 
lation  of,  436;  government  of, 

437- 

Phillips,  Wendell,  287. 

Phipps,  Sir  William,  in. 

Pickett's  charge,  at  Gettysburg,  364. 

Pierce,  Franklin,  elected  President 
of  the  United  States,  308. 

Pike,  Zebulon,  explorer,  235;  cap 
tures  Toronto,  252. 

Pilgrims,  migrate  to  Holland,  67; 
embark  for  America  in  the  May 
flower,  68;  land  in  America  and 
found  Plymouth,  69,  70;  rela 
tions  of,  with  the  Indians,  70. 

Pinckney,    Charles   C.,   rejected    by 


INDEX 


487 


France,  225;  defeated  for  Presi 
dent,  237. 

Pitt,  William,  Earl  of  Chatham, 
controls  French  and  Indian  War, 
12 1 ;  speaks  for  the  colonists,  156, 
1 60. 

Pittsburg  Landing,  battle  of,  346. 

Pizarro,  Francisco,  conquers  Peru,  16. 

Plymouth,  colony  of,  70;  is  joined 
to  Massachusetts,  87. 

Pocahontas,  saves  John  Smith,  43; 
marries  John  Rolfe,  44. 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  273. 

Polk,  James  K.,  nominated  for 
President,  291;  elected,  293; 
policy  and  character  of,  293. 

Polk,  Leonidas,  374. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  discovers  Florida,  14. 

Pontiac,  conspiracy  of,  123;  note  on, 
125. 

Pope,  John,  captures  Island  No.  10, 
347 ;  campaign  of,  in  Virginia,  35 1. 

Population,  at  close  of  French  and 
Indian  War,  127;  at  the  adopting 
of  the  Constitution,  212;  move 
ment  westward  of,  232,  264,  313, 
423;  distribution  of,  447  and  note. 
See  also  under  various  colonies  and 
Chronological  Table,  xxi. 

Populist  party,   the,  424. 

Port  Hudson  surrenders,  361. 

Porto  Rico,  war  in,  434;  ceded  to 
the  United  States,  434;  extent 
and  inhabitants  of,  436. 

Port  Royal,  Nova  Scotia,   in. 

Port  Royal,  South  Carolina,  founded 
by  Ribaut,  36;  captured,  343. 

Presbyterians,  in  Pennsylvania,  138. 

Prescott,  William,  commands  at 
Bunker  Hill,  164. 

Prescott,  William  H.,  316. 

Presidential     Succession     law,     419. 

President,  the,  fires  on  the  Little 
Belt,  247. 

Presidents,  table  of  the,  471  (Appen 
dix  III). 


Prevost,  General,  leads  army  from 
Canada,  253. 

Princeton,  battle  of,  174. 

Princeton  College,  142. 

Privateering,  in  the  Revolution,  190; 
in  the  War  of  1812,  251. 

Proctor,  General,  defeated  at  the 
Thames,  253. 

Prohibitionists, the,  nominate  Weaver, 
424. 

Puritans,  in  Maryland,  54;  in  Eng 
land,  67;  migration  of,  to  Massa 
chusetts,  73  ff. 

Putnam,  Israel,  joins  army  at  Boston, 
162;  note  on,  202. 

Putnam,  Rufus,  "Father  of  Ohio," 
founds  Marietta,  232. 

Quakers,  in  Maryland,  54;  in  New 
Jersey,  99;  found  Pennsylvania, 
102  ff.,  138. 

Quebec,  founded  by  Champlain,  108; 
captured  by  the  English,  122. 

Race  Question,   the,  395. 

Railroads,  beginning  of,  271. 

Railroad  rate  regulation,   445. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  attempts  colony 
building  in  America,  38-40;  note 
on,  65. 

Randolph,  Edmund,  in  first  Cabinet, 
218. 

Reconstruction,  390  ff. 

Redemptioners,  130,  131. 

Regulating  Act,   the,   158. 

Religion  in  the  colonies,  see  ac 
counts  of  the  settlements;  and 
Colonial  Life,  127  ff. ;  in  the  na 
tional  period,  272,  273. 

Republican  party,  the,  founded,  312, 
313;  organized  at  Pittsburg,  313. 

Revere,  Paul,  midnight  ride  of,  160, 
161;  note  on,  175. 

Revolution,  the,  causes  of,  154;  re 
sults  of,  199. 

Reynolds,  John  F.,  363. 


488 


INDEX 


Rhode  Island,  colony  of,  first  settled, 
78;  charters  for,  79;  adopts  the 
Constitution,  211. 

Ribaut,  Jean,  founds  colony,  36. 

Rice,  grown  in  South  Carolina,  59. 

Richmond,  Burr's  trial  at,  238;  be 
comes  Confederate  capital,  330; 
seven  days'  fight  before,  349; 
fall  of,  381. 

Riedesel,  Baroness,  note  on,  201. 

Roanoke,  lost  colony  of,  39. 

Roanoke  Island,  captured  by  Burn- 
side,  343. 

Rochambeau,  Count,  197. 

Rolfe,  John,  marries  Pocahontas,  44. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  becomes  Presi 
dent,  439;  elected  President,  445; 
administration  of,  444—446. 

Rosecrans,  William  S.,  at  Corinth, 
at  Stone  River,  359;  at  Chicka- 
mauga,  368. 

Ross,  Robert,  captures  Washington, 
is  killed  before  Baltimore,  254. 

Rumsey,  James,  238. 

Russia,  colonizes  Western  coast,  263 ; 
our  relations  with,  during  the 
Civil  War,  386. 

St.  Augustine,  founded,  37. 

St.  Clair,  defeated  by  the  Indians,  232. 

St.    Leger,    177;    at   Oriskany,    178. 

Samoset,  70,  71. 

Sampson,  William  T.,    at  Santiago, 

434- 

San  Juan,  battle  of,  433. 
San     Salvador,    landing     place     of 

Columbus,  9. 
Santiago,  battle  of,  434. 
Santo    Domingo,     proposed     treaty 

with,  446. 
Saratoga,  surrender  of  Burgoyne  at, 

179,  i8c. 
Savannah,    founded   by   Oglethorpe, 

6 1 ;    surrendered    to    the    British, 

104;    captured  by  Sherman,  379. 
Saxe,  John  G.,  315. 


Schley,  Winfield  Scott,  in  battle  of 

Santiago,  434. 
Schuyler,  Philip,  in  command  in  the 

North,  178. 
Scotch-Irish,    in    Virginia,    51;     in 

New  England,  1 29;  in  Pennsylvania, 

137- 

Scots,  in  Pennsylvania,   129. 
Scott,  Winfield,  in  War  of  1812,  253; 

in   Mexican   War,    296;     defeated 

for    President,     308;      retired    in 

1861,  348. 
Secession,  threats  of,  257,  302,  303; 

right   of,  329;    accomplished,  330, 

335- 

Seminole  War,  261,  282. 
Separatists,  see  Pilgrims. 
Seven  Pines,  battle  of,  349. 
Seward,     William     H.,     speaks     on 

Fugitive  Slave  law,  304 ;   Northern 

leader,  319;   in  Lincoln's  Cabinet, 

333;    in  Johnson's,  391. 
Sewing  machine,  patent  of,  314. 
Shafter,  William  R.,  433. 
Shays,  Daniel,  leads  insurrection,  206. 
Sheridan,  Philip  H.,  in  Shenandoah 

Valley,  373,  374;    at  Five    Forks, 

381;    sent  to  Texas,  386;    388. 
Sherman,  John,  brings  about  specie 

payments,  410. 
Sherman,     Roger,     in     Continental 

Congress,   160. 
Sherman,  Thomas  W.,  343. 
Sherman,  William  T.,  at  Vicksburg, 

359;    captures  Atlanta,  374,  375; 

marches     to     the     sea,     378-380; 

receives    surrender    of    Johnston, 

382;    388. 
Sherman   Silver  Law,    passed,  422; 

repealed,  428. 
Shiloh,  battle  of,  346. 
Silver  Campaign,  the,  429. 
Slavery,    beginnings   of,  in   Virginia, 

46;    in  South  Carolina,  60,     139, 

140;     in    all    the    colonies,     129; 

condition  of,   130;    in  the  United 


INDEX 


489 


States  at  close  of  the  Revolution, 
212,  214;  becomes  chief  political 
issue,  262,  286;  in  the  territories, 
325;  cause  of  the  war,  330;  pro 
hibited  in  the  territories,  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  353;  in  the 
United  States,  392. 

Slidell,  John,  342. 

Smith,  John,  in  Virginia,  43  ff. ;  note 
on,  66. 

Society,  conditions  of,  in  colonial 
times,  129-132. 

"Sons  of  Liberty,"  156. 

South,  the,  change  in  attitude  of, 
on  slavery,  287;  displeased  at  free 
California,  302 ;  compared  with 
the  North,  337;  government  of 
during  the  Civil  War,  354,  355; 
troubles  in  after  the  war,  400; 
industrial  awakening  of,  410. 

South  Carolina,  colony  of,  first  set 
tled,.  57;  government  of,  57,  58; 
becomes  royal  colony,  separated 
from  North  Carolina,  59 ;  products 
and  growth  of,  59,  60. 

South  Carolina,  state  of,  passes 
nullification  ordinance,  278;  agrees 
to  compromise,  279;  secedes, 
330;  is  restored,  394. 

Southern  Colonies,  the,  settled  by 
the  English,  35-66;  condition  of 
slavery  in,  130;  social  life  in,  138; 
education  in,  142;  war  in,  194  ff. 

South   Mountain,    battle   of,    352. 

Spain,  claims  North  and  South 
America,  35  and  note;  sends 
Armada  to  England,  36;  at  war 
with  England,  63 ;  receives  Louisi 
ana  from  France,  123;  cedes  it 
back,  234;  cedes  Florida  to  the 
United  States,  262;  war  with  in 
1898,  432  ff. 

Spaniards,  discoveries  and  explora 
tions  of,  1-20. 

Spoils  System,  the,  276. 

Spottsylvania,  battle  of,  372. 


Sprague,  Charles,  315. 

Squanto,  71,  72. 

Stamp  Act,  155;    repeal  of,  156. 

Standish,  Miles,  68. 

Stanton,  Edwin  M.,  396. 

Stark,  John,  162,  165;  at  Benning- 
ton,  179. 

Star  of  the  West,  the,  331. 

Star-route  frauds,  416. 

Star-spangled  Banner,  254. 

States,  table  of,  469,  470  (Appendix 
II). 

Steamboat,  the,  invented  by  Ful 
ton,  238;  numbers  of,  270. 

Stephens,  Alexander  H.,  elected  Vice 
President  of  the  Confederate  States, 
33°>  331 ;  treats  for  peace  381. 

Steuben,  Baron,  185,  188. 

Stevens,  Thaddeus,  leader  in  the 
House,  341,  393. 

Stone  River,  battle  of,  359. 

Stony  Point,  capture  of,  193. 

Stowe,    Harriet   Beecher,   307. 

Strike,  railroad,  412. 

Stuyvesant,  Peter,  last  of  the  Dutch 
governors,  94,  95;  surrenders  to 
the  English,  97  and  note  i. 

Sullivan,  John,  165;  captured  by 
the  British,  171;  defeats  the  In 
dians,  190. 

Sumner,  Charles,  assaulted  by  Brooks, 
322 ;  a  leader  in  Senate,  341 ;  leads 
Senate  in  reconstruction,  393. 

Sumter,  Fort,  fired  on,  333;  sur 
renders,  334. 

Supreme  Court,  the,  organized,  218. 

Swallow,  Silas  C.,  nominated  for 
President,  445. 

Swedes,  settle  Delaware,  conquered 
by  the  Dutch,  101;  in  Penn 
sylvania,  105,  137. 

Taft,  William   R.,  governor  of  the 

Philippines,   437. 
Taney,     Roger     B.,     renders     Dred 

Scott  Decision,  320. 


490 


INDEX 


Tariff,  the,  of  1789,  217;  of  1816, 
260;  compromise  tariff,  279; 
Walker,  293;  the  McKinley,  421; 
the  Wilson,  428;  the  Dingley,  431. 

Tarleton,  Banastre,  196. 

Taylor,  Zachary,  leads  army  to 
Mexico,  295 ;  at  Buena  Vista, 
296;  elected  President  of  the 
United  States,  301;  death  of,  304. 

Tea,  tax  on,  156,  157. 

Tecumseh,  246;  killed  in  battle,  253. 

Telegraph,  the,  first  practical  use 
of,  291,  note;  299,  note;  great  im 
portance  of,  314. 

Telephone,    invention   of,   424. 

Tennessee,  adopted  home  of  Jack 
son,  276;  secedes,  335;  is  re 
stored,  393. 

Tenure  of  Office  Act,  395. 

Texas,  declares  independence  of 
Mexico,  290;  admitted  to  the 
Union,  295. 

Text-books,  in  colonial  times,  142. 

Thames,  battle  of  the,   253. 

Thirteenth  Amendment,  the,  392. 

Thomas,  George  H.,  at  Chicka- 
mauga,  369 ;  388. 

Ticonderoga,  seized  by  Ethan  Allen, 
162. 

Tilden,  Samuel  J.,  candidate  for 
President,  408. 

Tippecanoe,   battle   of,   246. 

Tobacco,  raised  in  Virginia,  45,  46. 

Toleration   Act,    the,  53. 

Toombs,  Robert,  354. 

Tories,  the,  169. 

Travel,  means  of,  in  colonial  times, 
143,  144;  in  later  times,  213,  265, 
270. 

Treaty,  of  Paris  (1763),  123;  with 
France  (1778),  187;  of  Paris 
(1783),  199,  200;  Jay  (1794),  223; 
with  Spain  (1795),  224;  of  Ghent 
(1814),  256,  257;  Webster-Ash- 
burton  (1842),  290;  with  Mexico 
(1848),  297;  Clayton-Bulwer  (1850), 


317;   of  Washington  (1871),  401; 

with    Spain     (1898),    434;    Hay- 

Pauncefote,  440 ;  Hay-Herran,  440; 

with  Panama  (1904),  442. 
Trent  Affair,  the,  342. 
Trenton,  battle  of,  173. 
Turner,  Nat,  insurrection  of,  287. 
Tyler,  John,  elected  Vice  President, 

288 ;  becomes  President,  289 ;  vetoes 

bank    bill,    289,    290;     in    Peace 

Congress,  331. 

"  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  307. 
Underground  Railroad,  the,  306,  307. 

Vaca,  Cabeza  de,  wanderings  of,  17. 

Vallandigham,  C.  L.,  356,  357. 

Valley   Forge,   army  at,   184,   185. 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  elected  Vice 
President,  280;  becomes  President, 
283. 

Van  Rensselaer,  Stephen,  249. 

Van  Twiller,  Wouter,  94. 

Venezuela   Message,    the,   428,   429. 

Venice,  route  to  the  East  from,  2. 

Vermont,  admitted  to  the  Union,  212. 

Verrazano,  explores  Atlantic  coast, 
22. 

Vicksburg,  invested  by  Grant,  359; 
surrenders,  360. 

Vinland,  colony  of,  i. 

Virginia,  colony  of,  settled  at  James 
town,  40,  41 ;  character  of  first 
colonists  of,  42;  beginning  of 
self-government  in,  slavery  in,  46; 
becomes  a  royal  colony,  48;  de 
velopment  of,  50;  slavery  and 
social  life  in,  130,  138;  proposes 
independence  in  Congress,  167. 

Virginia,  state  of,  ratifies  constitu 
tion,  210;  secedes,  335;  is  restored, 
394- 

Wade,  Benjamin,  397. 
Walking  Purchase,  the,  106. 
Ward,  Artemas,  164. 


INDEX 


491 


Warner,  Seth,  leader  of  Green  Moun 
tain  Boys,  89;  162. 

Warren,  Joseph,  160;  killed  at 
Bunker  Hill,  164. 

Wars,  King  William's,  no;  Queen 
Anne's,  in;  King  George's,  112; 
French  and  Indian,  113  ff. ;  the 
Revolutionary,  153  ff. ;  in  the  Medi 
terranean,  233;  of  1812,  245  ff. ; 
Mexican,  294  ff. ;  Civil  War,  337  ff. ; 
Spanish,  432. 

Washington,  city  of,  first  laid  out, 
231;  captured  by  the  British,  254; 
threatened  by  Confederates,  373. 

Washington,  Fort,  captured  by  the 
British,  172. 

Washington,  George,  sent  to  St. 
Pierre,  114;  with  Braddock  at 
Fort  Duquesne,  118;  leads  planters 
to  resist  the  king,  157,  159;  in 
First  Continental  Congress,  160; 
appointed  commander  of  army, 
163;  takes  command,  164,  165; 
occupies  Dorchester,  166;  de 
feated  at  Long  Island,  171;  re 
treats  across  New  Jersey,  172, 
wins  battle  of  Trenton,  173;  and  of 
Princeton,  174;  meets  Howe  at  the 
Brandywine,  183 ;  at  Germantown, 
183;  at  Monmouth,  186;  forces 
surrender  of  Cornwallis,  197;  is 
chosen  President,  214;  second 
election  of,  221;  proclaims  neu 
trality,  222;  retirement  of,  char 
acter  of,  224;  note  on,  230. 

Washington,   treaty  of,  401. 

Watauga,    treaty  of,    188. 

Watson,  Thomas  E.,  nominated 
for  President,  445. 

Wayne,  Anthony,  captures  Stony 
Point,  193;  defeats  the  Indians 
in  Ohio,  232. 

Weaver,  James  B.,  424. 

Webster-Ashburton    treaty,   290. 

Webster,  Daniel,  debates  with  Hayne, 


278;  speaks  on  Fugitive  Slave  law, 

304;    death  of,  309. 
West     Virginia,     admitted     to     the 

Union,  340. 
Weyler,  General,  432. 
Whig     party,     the,     founded,     288; 

fall    of,  308. 

Whisky  insurrection,   220. 
White  Plains,  battle  of,  172. 
Whitney,  Eli,  invents  cotton  gin,  213. 
Whittier,    John    G.,    273;     attitude 

of,  on  slavery,  287,  315. 
Wilkes,  Charles,  captures  the  Trent, 

342. 

Wilkinson,    James,    in    Burr's    con 
spiracy,     237;     in    War    of    1812, 

252. 
William    and    Mary,    sovereigns    of 

England,  no. 

William  and  Mary  College,  143. 
William  Henry,  Fort,  captured,   121. 
Williams,  Roger,   75;  founds  Rhode 

Island,    78,    79. 
Williamsburg,  battle  of,  349. 
Wilmot  Proviso,   297,   298. 
Wilson,    William    L.,    frames    tariff 

law,  428. 

Wilson's  Creek,  battle  of,  341. 
Winslow,  Edward,  68. 
Winthrop,    John,    leads    colony    to 

Massachusetts,  73,  74. 
Winthrop,    John,   the  younger,  gov 
ernor  of  Connecticut,  78. 
Witchcraft,  at  Salem,  76. 
Wolfe,   James,   captures  Quebec,  is 

killed,  122  and  note. 
World's  Fair,  at  Chicago,  438;    at 

St.  Louis,  438. 
Wyoming  Valley,  massacre  of,  189. 

X  Y  Z  Mission,  226. 

Yeamans,  Sir  John,  55,  57. 
Yorktown,   surrender  of   Cornwallis 
at,  197. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  5O  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $I.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


<        - 


MAY  10  1943 

•    . 


12May'58  D8 


REG 


LD  21-95w-7,'37 


£ 

THE  ON.VEK.TY  OP  CAL.P  OWI*  UBRARV 


